Cognitive Psychology Finals Reviewer PDF

Learning is the process that results in a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience. Learning in Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Focus Unlike behaviorist perspectives, cognitive psychology examines how internal processes play a role in learning. Application Learning...

Learning is the process that results in a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience. Learning in Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Focus Unlike behaviorist perspectives, cognitive psychology examines how internal processes play a role in learning. Application Learning theories in cognitive psychology help us Self-Efficacy understand skill development, problem-solving, language acquisition. ▪ An individual’s belief in their ability to successfully perform a behavior or achieve a goal. ▪ It influences motivation, as people are more likely to engage in activities they believe they can succeed in. Cognitive Constructivism (Piaget) ▪ This theory suggests that learners actively construct knowledge based on their own experiences. ▪ Assimilation, accommodation, and Theories of Learning schema. Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) Schema (Schemes) ▪ Learning through association, where a ▪ Schemas are mental structures or neutral stimulus becomes associated with a frameworks that organize and interpret meaningful stimulus, producing conditioned information. response. ▪ Shows how associations are formed, which ▪ Schemas evolve and expand as individuals influence judgement. gain new experiences. Operant Conditioning (Skinner) Assimilation ▪ Learning bases on the consequences of ▪ Assimilation is the process of integrating new actions, where behaviors are strengthened information into an existing schema without or weakened by reinforcement or changing it. punishment. ▪ Assimilation helps learners make sense of Social Learning Theory (Bandura) new information based on their current understanding, reinforcing their existing ▪ Learning through observing and imitating schemas. others, without direct experience. ▪ Observational learning, modeling, and Accommodation self-efficacy. ▪ The process of altering or creating new Observational Learning (Modeling) schemas to incorporate information that doesn’t fit within existing schemas. ▪ Observational learning occurs when individuals learn by watching others ▪ Accommodation allows learners to adjust (models) perform a behavior, understanding their understanding and adapt to new the consequences, and imitating the information, leading to a more accurate view observed behavior. of the world  Cultural Tools and Symbols ▪ Cultural tools, including language, symbols, and technologies, are shared resources provided by the cultural context that help individuals make sense of the world. Neuroscientific Foundations Hippocampus ▪ The hippocampus is crucial for the formation of new memories, particularly declarative memories. ▪ It helps in encoding and consolidating information into long-term memory. ▪ Damage to the hippocampus, as seen in Social Constructivism cases of amnesia, can severely impair the ability to form new memories, illustrating its ▪ Social constructivism, rooted in the theories importance in learning. of Lev Vygotsky, posits that knowledge and understanding are actively constructed Amygdala through social interactions within a cultural ▪ The amygdala plays a central role in context. processing emotions, especially fear and ▪ ZPD, scaffolding, and cultural tools. reward-based learning. Zone of Proximal Development ▪ Emotional responses, such as fear or pleasure, can enhance memory ▪ The gap between what a learner can do consolidation, making emotionally charged independently and what they can accomplish experiences more memorable. with guidance or collaboration from others, often from a more knowledgeable individual. Pre-Frontal Cortex ▪ The prefrontal cortex is responsible for higher-order cognitive functions like decision-making, planning, and working memory ▪ It helps regulate attention, organize information, and support complex thinking required for problem-solving and goal- directed learning. Neuroplasticity ▪ Brain plasticity, or neuroplasticity, is the brain’s ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. ▪ Neuroplasticity allows the brain to adapt to new experiences and information, making it the foundation for lifelong learning. ▪ Learning a new skill, like playing an instrument, can increase gray matter in Scaffolding specific brain areas, illustrating how practice ▪ The support or guidance provided to a and repetition physically reshape the brain. learner within their ZPD to help them THOUGHTS AND PROBLEM SOLVING accomplish tasks they cannot complete alone. Understanding Thought Processes ▪ As learners gain independence, the support Thoughts are the internal representations of our is gradually reduced. experiences, knowledge, and understanding of the world (Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology). It involves This system is engaged when solving both conscious and unconscious processes. complex problems, making decisions based on evidence, or considering new information. Key Components of Thought Interaction between systems: Often, both systems Mental Representations – Internal cognitive models work in tandem, with System 1 guiding routine or “pictures” of the world that we use to think and decisions and System 2 engaged when more reason. They can be images, concepts, or thorough analysis is necessary (Goldstein, Cognitive propositions. Psychology). Propositions 2) Heuristics – are mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that simplify decision-making and Images problem-solving. Concepts Availability Heuristic – This heuristic involves Organization of Knowledge – Our thoughts are estimating the likelihood of an event based on how structured in the form of mental frameworks that help easily examples come to mind. us organize and retrieve information efficiently. Representativeness Heuristic - This heuristic Schemas involves judging the probability of an event based on how similar it is to a prototype or stereotype. Scripts 3) Metacognition – refers to thinking about Types of Thought one's own thinking processes. It involves being aware of and controlling cognitive Concrete activities, such as planning how to approach Focused on tangible, specific, and a problem, monitoring one's understanding, immediate experiences or objects. and evaluating the outcomes of strategies. Abstract 4) Cognitive Load Theory – This theory, discussed by Goldstein, suggests that our Involves higher-level cognition that working memory has a limited capacity, transcends the immediate and tangible. which affects how well we can think and process information. Mental imagery plays a crucial role in thought by enabling us to manipulate and work with mental Cognitive load refers to the mental effort representations. For example, when solving a required to process information. When cognitive problem, we might imagine different outcomes or load exceeds the capacity of working memory, it "visualize" a solution before acting on it. impairs thinking and problem-solving. Goldstein discusses how mental images can What is Problem Solving? help in problem-solving, especially when we lack direct, physical information. Problem solving is the cognitive process of finding a solution to an obstacle or challenge. Theories of Thinking 1) Identifying the problem 1) Dual-Process Theory – Posits that human 2) Formulating possible solutions thinking operates through two distinct 3) Executing a strategy systems. Problem solving is not always about finding a single System 1: Intuitive and Fast Thinking correct answer; it can also involve exploring multiple possibilities and choosing the most effective solution System 1 is automatic, quick, and based on the situation (Goldstein, Cognitive unconscious. Psychology). Operates effortlessly and is used for making Stages of Problem-Solving rapid judgments and decisions. 1) PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION Relies heavily on heuristics. 2) STRATEGY FORMULATION System 2: Analytical and Slow Thinking 3) SOLUTION EXECUTION 4) EVALUATIONS System 2 is deliberate, slow, and conscious. Types of Problems – Problem-solving processes Requires more effort and cognitive vary depending on the type of problem, the individual’s resources. expertise, and the resources available.  1) Well-Defined Problems – These problems Techniques to enhance creativity have clear goals, specific solutions, and defined constraints. The solution process 1) Brainstorming without judgment follows a systematic path. 2) Using analogies to approach the problem 2) Ill-Defined Problems – These problems from a different perspective. lack clear goals, methods, or solutions. They are more complex and may involve 3) Changing environmental or mental contexts ambiguity, uncertainty, or multiple ways to (e.g., stepping away and returning with fresh approach a solution. eyes). The Role of Expertise in Problem Solving – Expert problem solvers tend to have a deep, organized knowledge base and can quickly recognize patterns Obstacles to Problem Solving and identify solutions. Problem-solving is not always a straightforward Problem-Solving Strategies process; various cognitive, emotional, and situational factors can hinder progress. Problem-solving strategies are cognitive approaches or techniques used to find solutions to challenges. 1) Functional fixedness Strategies range from methodical and precise 2) Mental Set procedures (algorithms) to quicker, heuristic-based 3) Confirmation bias approaches. 4) Overconfidence 1. Goldstein emphasizes that the choice of strategy depends on the problem type, 5) Perceptual and cognitive limits (cognitive context, and available resources. load and distraction) Algorithmic Approaches – Algorithms are step-by- 6) Emotional Barriers step procedures or formulas that guarantee a solution if applied correctly. These approaches are systematic, 7) Fixation on irrelevant information logical, and often used for well-defined problems. Overcoming Obstacles Heuristic-Based Problem Solving – Heuristics are mental shortcuts that simplify problem-solving by 1) Reframing the Problem reducing cognitive effort. 2) Encouraging Creativity Means-End Analysis – A heuristic where the solver 3) Managing Cognitive Load breaks down the problem into smaller sub-goals and works toward reducing the difference between the 4) Seeking Feedback current state and the goal state. LANGUAGE AND COMPREHENSION Ex: Planning a road trip by first identifying major stops and then filling in the smaller routes. Language Working Backward – This heuristic involves starting A system of communication using sounds or from the desired outcome (goal state) and tracing symbols to express ideas. backward to the current state. It is key to understanding cognitive functions Ex: Solving a maze by starting at the end or planning like memory, attention, and reasoning. a retirement fund by working back from the target Language influences how we think, remember, and amount needed. interact with the world. Analogical Reasoning – Involves solving a new problem by drawing parallels to a similar problem Components of Language previously solved. 1) Phonology – Study of sounds and their Ex: Applying knowledge from treating a similar organization in language. medical case to address a new patient’s symptoms. 2) Morphology – Rules governing word Creativity – Creativity involves generating novel and formation (e.g., adding “ed” for past tense). effective solutions to ill-defined problems. 3) Syntax – How words are organized to form Divergent thinking plays a critical role here, where sentences (e.g., subject-verb-object individuals explore multiple possibilities instead of structures) focusing on a single solution.  4) Semantics – Focus on meaning at the word Sentence Processing and sentence level. Parsing - The act of breaking a sentence into 5) Pragmatics – How language is used syntactic units to understand its structure. contextually (e.g., sarcasm) Ex: "The dog chased the cat" is parsed into subject (dog), verb (chased), and object (cat). Semantics Integration - Combining word meanings with syntactic structure to derive sentence meaning. Influenced by context and prior knowledge. Discourse Processing The process of understanding and integrating sentences into a coherent narrative or conversation. Coherence - Maintaining logical flow between sentences. Ex: “She was tired. She went to bed early. “ Theories of Language Processing Inference-Making - Filling in implied information not explicitly stated in the text. 1) Bottom-Up Processing – Language comprehension begins with perceiving Ex: "John heard thunder. He grabbed an individual sounds or words before building umbrella. “ meaning. Anaphoric Resolution - Resolving Ex: Decoding a new word in an unfamiliar text. pronouns and references in text. 2) Top-Down Processing – Prior knowledge Ex: "Lisa picked up the book. She started and expectations guide understanding. reading it." ("She" refers to Lisa). Ex: Predicting the meaning of a sentence based on context. Neurological Bases of Language 3) Interactive Models – Combine both 1) Broca’s Area – Found in the left frontal lobe processes. Highlight how sensory input and (specifically, the inferior frontal gyrus). cognitive factors (like memory) interact during comprehension. Function: Responsible for language production, grammar, and articulation. Critical for constructing syntactically correct sentences. Comprehension Processes Damage: Results in Broca’s aphasia (non-fluent aphasia). Word Recognition 2) Wernicke’s Area – Found in the left The process of identifying individual words, either temporal lobe (posterior section of the through visual (reading) or auditory (listening) superior temporal gyrus). pathways. Function: Essential for understanding spoken and Phonological Loop (Auditory Processing) - written language. Processes word meaning and Ex: Recognizing spoken words in a language semantics. conversation. Damage: Results in Wernicke’s aphasia (fluent Visual Word Recognition – Ex: aphasia). Recognizing “apple” by its shape and letters. Challenges in Language Comprehension Lexical Access - Retrieving word meaning and pronunciation from long-term memory. 1) Ambiguity in Language – Language is Faster for frequently used words due to often ambiguous, meaning words or strengthened neural pathways. sentences can have multiple meanings depending on context. 2) Lexical Ambiguity – Single word having multiple meanings.  Ex: Bank: It could mean a financial Understanding reasoning and judgment institution, or the side of a river. provides insights into how humans think, 3) Syntactic Ambiguity – Occurs when a sentence can be interpreted in multiple ways solve problems, and make decisions. These due to its structure. processes are foundational to other cognitive Ex: "I saw the man with the telescope. “ functions, such as perception, memory, and Did I use the telescope to see the man, or did the man have the telescope? decision-making. Cultural Differences in Communication Styles Dual Process Theory in Reasoning and Direct vs. Indirect Communication Judgment Western Cultures – tend to prefer direct, explicit communication System 1 Ex: "Can you help me?" Fast, automatic, and effortless Eastern Cultures – often use indirect forms of Based on heuristics communication to maintain harmony and avoid confrontation. Prone to biases and errors Ex: "It would be great if you could assist me when you have time." System 2 Use of Nonverbal Cues Slow, deliberate, and effortful Body Language, Tone, and Prosody Involves logical analysis and critical In many cultures, nonverbal communication (e.g., gestures, tone of voice) plays a large role in thinking interpreting meaning. Mentally demanding and time The same sentence spoken with different prosody consuming (intonation) or accompanying body language can have drastically different meanings. A doctor diagnosing a patient Metaphors and Figurative Language System 1: Instinctively suspects a Metaphors and other forms of figurative language common illness based on symptoms. (e.g., similes, idioms) add richness to communication but can be difficult to understand. System 2: Cross-checks evidence and Speech Errors and Disfluencies runs tests to confirm or refute the initial intuition. Speech Errors Slips of the tongue can lead to temporary Types of Reasoning comprehension challenges. 1. Deductive Reasoning Disfluencies Reasoning from general principles or Fillers can cause temporary disruption in understanding but are often used in premises to arrive at specific, logically certain everyday language to signal hesitation or conclusions. thinking. If the premises are true, the REASONING AND JUDGMENT conclusion must also be true (validity). Reasoning – The cognitive process of Ex. Syllogism analyzing information, identifying relationships, and deriving conclusions. Premise 1: All birds have feathers. Judgement – The ability to evaluate evidence, weigh options, and make informed decisions. Premise 2: A dove is a bird.  Conclusion: Misinterpretation 5. Availability Heuristic can lead to invalid conclusions. Judging the likelihood of an event based 2. Inductive Reasoning on how easily examples come to mind. Reasoning from specific observations or The Role of Emotion in Judgment instances to form general conclusions. 1. Emotional Reasoning Conclusions are probable, not Making decisions based on how one guaranteed. feels rather than objective evidence. Used to make predictions or infer Emotions can provide valuable rules. insights, especially in social and moral Ex. Observing that the sun has risen judgments. every day and concluding it will rise Can lead to impulsive or biased tomorrow. decisions when emotions are intense Susceptible to biases or limited data or irrational. (hasty generalizations) 2. Positive Emotions Common Biases and Errors in Reasoning Broaden attention and encourage Goldstein discusses how biases are creative-thinking byproducts of adaptive cognitive strategies Can lead to over-optimism or risk- but need to be mitigated in situations taking behavior. requiring precise reasoning and judgment. Ex: A person in a happy mood may 1. Confirmation Bias underestimate the risk of a financial The tendency to seek out, interpret, and investment. remember information that supports existing 3. Negative Emotions beliefs, while ignoring or dismissing contradictory evidence. Narrow focus and enhance detail- oriented thinking. 2. Hindsight Bias Can cause over-cautiousness or The tendency to see events as more heightened perception of threats. predictable after they have occurred ("I knew it all along"). Ex: Fear of failure may lead someone to overanalyze a decision or avoid 3. Overconfidence Bias taking any action. Overestimating the accuracy of one’s 4. Mixed Emotion knowledge, skills, or predictions. Experiencing both positive and 4. Anchoring Bias negative emotions simultaneously can Definition: Relying too heavily on the first lead to more balanced decisions. piece of information encountered (the Ex. A bittersweet feeling about a life- “anchor”) when making decisions. changing decision (e.g., moving to an new school) may promote thoughtful judgment. Emotion-Specific Effects on Judgment 4. Practicing Reflective Thinking Fear: Increases risk aversion and Reflecting on past decisions to identify focus on potential losses. strengths and weaknesses in reasoning. Anger: Leads to overconfidence and Learning from mistakes by analyzing reliance on heuristics. what went wrong and why. Sadness: Encourages systematic and Example: Reviewing a failed project to analytical thinking. understand how overconfidence affected risk assessment. Happiness: Can increase reliance on intuitive reasoning. Improving Reasoning and Judgment Strategies to Improve Reasoning and Judgment 1. Encouraging Critical Thinking The ability to analyze facts objectively and evaluate arguments systematically. Asking probing questions (e.g., “What evidence supports this conclusion?”). In evaluating a news article, critically assessing whether it is based on credible evidence or opinion. 2. Reducing Cognitive Bias Awareness: Recognizing common biases like confirmation bias and availability heuristic. Seeking disconfirming evidence to challenge initial beliefs. Delaying snap judgments to allow for reflective thinking. Using a checklist in medical diagnoses to ensure all possibilities are considered, not just the most obvious. 3. Seeking Diverse Perspectives Collaborative reasoning: Discussing ideas with others to uncover blind spots. Example: A policymaker consults experts across fields before implementing a new law.