Cognitive Psychology Past Paper 2021-2022 PDF

**LSPU Self-Paced Learning Module (SLM)** **Course** Cognitive Psychology (PSY 11) ------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------...

**LSPU Self-Paced Learning Module (SLM)** **Course** Cognitive Psychology (PSY 11) ------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ **Sem/AY** First Semester/2021-2022 **Module No.** **1** **Lesson Title** **Introduction to Cognitive Psychology** **Week Duration** **2** **Date** **October 11-15, 2021** **Description of the Lesson** Cognitive processes are continuously taking place in your mind and in the minds of the people around you. This chapter will introduce you to some of the people who helped form the field of cognitive psychology and make it what it is today and will also discuss methods used in cognitive-psychological research. **Learning Outcomes** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Intended Learning Outcomes** | Students should be able to meet | | | the following intended learning | | | outcomes: | | | | | | - Define cognitive psychology | | | | | | - Describe how cognitive | | | psychology develop from | | | psychology | | | | | | - Describe how have other | | | disciplines contributed to | | | the development of theory and | | | research in cognitive | | | psychology | | | | | | - Discuss methods cognitive | | | psychologists use to study | | | how people think | | | | | | - Discuss current issues and | | | various fields of study | | | within cognitive psychology | +===================================+===================================+ | **Targets/ Objectives** | At the end of the lesson, | | | students should be able to: | | | | | | - Know what is cognitive | | | psychology | | | | | | - Know how cognitive psychology | | | developed from psychology and | | | who are those people that | | | contributed to this | | | development | | | | | | - Know different methods | | | cognitive psychologists use | | | to study how people think | | | | | | - Know the current issues and | | | various fields of study | | | within cognitive psychology | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+  **Student Learning Strategies** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Online Activities | Specific lesson for this topic | | (Synchronous/** | titled ***Introduction to | | | Cognitive Psychology*** will be | | **Asynchronous)** | posted on our Google Classroom on | | | October 11, 2021 | | | | | | (For further instructions, refer | | | to your Google Classroom and see | | | the schedule of activities for | | | this module) | +===================================+===================================+ | **Offline Activities** | **Lecture Guide** | | | | | **(e-Learning/Self-Paced)** | **COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY DEFINED** | | | | | | The study of how humans perceive, | | | learn, remember, and think about | | | information is known as | | | **cognitive psychology**. A | | | cognitive psychologist might | | | examine at how people see | | | different shapes, why they retain | | | some facts but forget others, or | | | how they acquire new things. | | | | | | Consider some examples: | | | | | | 1. On foggy days, why do objects | | | appear to be further away | | | than they actually are? The | | | difference can be risky, | | | causing drivers to be | | | deceived and cause car | | | accidents. | | | | | | 2. Why do you remember people | | | from your childhood so | | | clearly but not someone you | | | met just a week ago? | | | | | | 3. Why do huge corporations\' | | | marketing executives spend so | | | much money on advertisements? | | | | | | Although the methods for tackling | | | fundamental concerns in cognitive | | | psychology have evolved, many of | | | the underlying questions have | | | remained largely unchanged. | | | Cognitive psychologists want to | | | learn how people think by | | | examining how they think about | | | thinking. | | | | | | Dialectic is frequently used in | | | the evolution of ideas. Dialectic | | | is a type of developmental | | | process in which ideas change | | | over time in a pattern. What is | | | this pattern? In a dialectic: | | | | | | 1. **A thesis is proposed**. A | | | thesis is a statement of | | | belief | | | | | | 2. **An antithesis emerges.** An | | | antithesis is a statement | | | that contradicts a preceding | | | believing claim. | | | | | | 3. **A synthesis integrates the | | | viewpoints**. A synthesis | | | integrates the most credible | | | features of each of two (or | | | more) views. | | | | | | **PHILOSOPHICAL ANTECEDENTS OF | | | PSYCHOLOGY: RATIONALISM VERSUS | | | EMPIRICISM** | | | | | | When and where did cognitive | | | psychology become a field of | | | study? The earliest foundations | | | of psychology are commonly traced | | | back to two methods to | | | understanding the human mind: | | | | | | - **Philosophy** aims to | | | comprehend the nature of | | | various parts of the world in | | | general, in part through | | | introspection, or the | | | analysis of one\'s own inner | | | thoughts and experiences. | | | | | | - **Physiology** aims to | | | conduct a scientific | | | investigation of living | | | matter\'s life-sustaining | | | processes, primarily through | | | empirical (observational) | | | approaches. | | | | | | **Plato** (ca. 428--348 B.C.) and | | | his student **Aristotle** | | | (384--322 B.C.) are two Greek | | | philosophers who influenced | | | modern thought in psychology and | | | many other subjects. In terms of | | | how to study concepts, Plato and | | | Aristotle disagreed. | | | | | | Plato was a **rationalist**, who | | | believes that thinking and | | | logical analysis are the best | | | ways to gain knowledge. While, | | | Aristotle is an **empiricist**, | | | who thinks that empirical | | | evidence---that is, evidence | | | gained by experience and | | | observation---is the best way to | | | acquire knowledge. | | | | | | In a sense, empiricism leads | | | directly to psychological | | | empirical research. Rationalists, | | | on the other hand, play a vital | | | role in theory development. | | | | | | With the French rationalist | | | **René Descartes** (1596--1650) | | | and the British empiricist **John | | | Locke** (1632--1704), the | | | opposing ideas of rationalism and | | | empiricism became prominent. | | | | | | The introspective, reflective | | | method, according to Descartes, | | | was superior to empirical methods | | | for discovering truth. Descartes | | | is credited with coining the | | | phrase \"cogito, ergo sum\" (I | | | think, therefore I am). He | | | claimed that the fact that he was | | | thinking and doubting was the | | | only proof of his existence. | | | | | | Humans are born without | | | knowledge, according to Locke, | | | and must consequently seek | | | knowledge through empirical | | | observation. Tabula rasa (Latin | | | for \"blank slate\") was Locke\'s | | | name for this viewpoint. | | | | | | **Immanuel Kant** (1724--1804), a | | | German philosopher, harmonized | | | the beliefs of Descartes and | | | Locke in the eighteenth century, | | | claiming that both rationality | | | and empiricism had their place. | | | | | | **PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF | | | COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY** | | | | | | **Early Dialectics in the | | | Psychology of Cognition** | | | | | | 1. **Structuralism** | | | | | | The first prominent school of | | | thinking in psychology was | | | structuralism. Structuralism | | | attempts to analyze the mind\'s | | | structure (composition of | | | elements) and perceptions by | | | dissecting such perceptions into | | | their fundamental parts | | | (affection, attention, memory, | | | sensation, etc.). | | | | | | **Wilhelm Wundt** (1832--1920), a | | | German psychologist, influenced | | | the development of structuralism | | | with his views. In psychology, | | | Wundt is often regarded as the | | | creator of structuralism  | | | | | | In his studies, Wundt used a | | | range of techniques. | | | Introspection was one of these | | | strategies. Introspection is the | | | careful examination of bits of | | | information travelling through | | | the mind.  | | | | | | Because the main emphasis in the | | | study of the mind switched from a | | | rationalist approach to an | | | empiricist approach of trying to | | | observe behavior in order to | | | derive conclusions about the | | | subject of research, the | | | introduction of introspection as | | | an experimental method was a | | | significant change in the | | | discipline. | | | | | | The process of introspection is | | | not without its drawbacks. | | | | | | 1. People may not always be able | | | to express exactly what is on | | | their minds or put it into | | | proper words. | | | | | | 2. What they say could be | | | incorrect | | | | | | 3. Simply asking people to pay | | | attention to their thoughts | | | or speak out loud while | | | working on a task may affect | | | the processes that are taking | | | place. | | | | | | Wundt had a sizable following. | | | **Edward Titchener** | | | (1867--1927), an American | | | student, was one of them. | | | Titchener (1910) is frequently | | | referred to as the \"first | | | full-fledged structuralist.\" In | | | any regard, he was essential in | | | the introduction of structuralism | | | to the United States. | | | | | | 2. **Functionalism** | | | | | | **Functionalism** proposed that | | | psychologists should concentrate | | | on mental processes rather than | | | substance. It tries to figure out | | | why people do what they do. | | | | | | Functionalists believed that | | | studying the processes of how and | | | why the mind functions as it | | | does, rather than the structural | | | contents and parts of the mind, | | | was the key to understanding the | | | human mind and behaviour. They | | | were particularly interested in | | | the research\'s practical | | | applications. | | | | | | It appears logical that | | | functionalism led to | | | **pragmatism** since | | | functionalists believed in | | | utilizing whichever techniques | | | best addressed a researcher\'s | | | questions. Pragmatists think that | | | the usefulness of information | | | validates it. | | | | | | Pragmatists are interested in not | | | just learning what individuals | | | do, but also in learning what we | | | can do with that information. | | | | | | **William James (1842--1910)** | | | was a key figure in moving | | | functionalism toward pragmatism. | | | His most important contribution | | | to psychology was a single book, | | | the classic **Principles of | | | Psychology**. | | | | | | Another early pragmatist, **John | | | Dewey (1859--1952**), had a | | | significant impact on modern | | | cognitive psychology thought. | | | Dewey is most known for his | | | pragmatic approach to thinking | | | and education. | | | | | | 3. **Associationism** | | | | | | **Associationism** is the study | | | of how aspects of the mind, such | | | as events or thoughts, may get | | | linked with one another in the | | | mind to produce learning. For | | | example, associations may result | | | from: **contiguity** (things that | | | occur together), **similarity** | | | (things with same features) & | | | **contrast** (things that have | | | polarities) | | | | | | **Hermann Ebbinghaus** | | | (1850--1909) was the first to use | | | associationist concepts | | | systematically in the late 1800s. | | | He focused his research on his | | | own mental processes. | | | | | | **Edward Lee Thorndike** | | | (1874--1949), another important | | | associationist, held that the | | | function of \"pleasure\" in the | | | formation of connections is | | | crucial. This concept, dubbed the | | | **law of effect**, states that if | | | an organism is rewarded for a | | | certain reaction, the stimulus | | | will tend to produce that | | | response over time. | | | | | | 4. **Behaviourism** | | | | | | Only the relationship between | | | observable behaviour and | | | environmental events or stimuli | | | is the emphasis of | | | **behaviourism**. The goal was to | | | produce something physical out of | | | something that others would have | | | referred to as \"mental.\" | | | | | | **Ivan Pavlov** (1849--1936), a | | | Nobel Prize--winning physiologist | | | from Russia, investigated | | | involuntary learning behaviour | | | which became famous on his | | | concept of classical | | | conditioning. Pavlov's landmark | | | work paved the way for the | | | development of behaviourism. | | | | | | **John Watson** (1878--1958) is | | | regarded as the \"father\" of | | | radical behaviourism. Internal | | | mental contents and procedures | | | were of no interest to him. He | | | thought that psychologists should | | | only examine behaviour that can | | | be observed. | | | | | | **B. F. Skinner** (1904--1990), a | | | radical behaviorist, thought that | | | behavior generated in response to | | | the environment could explain | | | almost all types of human | | | behavior, not only learning. | | | Skinner mostly worked with | | | animals in his study. He was | | | against mental processes. | | | Instead, he felt that **operant | | | conditioning**---the | | | strengthening or weakening of | | | behavior based on the presence or | | | absence of **reinforcement** | | | (rewards) **or | | | punishments**---was the way to | | | go. | | | | | | Behaviourism was challenged on | | | many fronts like language | | | acquisition, production, and | | | comprehension. | | | | | | 1. Behaviourism did not account | | | as well for complex mental | | | activities such as language | | | learning and problem solving | | | | | | 2. More than understanding | | | people's behaviour, some | | | psychologists wanted to know | | | what went on inside the head | | | | | | 3. It often proved easier to use | | | the techniques of | | | behaviourism in studying | | | nonhuman animals than in | | | studying human ones. | | | | | | Despite this, behaviourism | | | remains a school of psychology, | | | but one that is not especially | | | receptive to the cognitive | | | method, which entails | | | metaphorically and sometimes | | | literally peeking into people\'s | | | minds to understand how they | | | learn, remember, think, and | | | reason. | | | | | | 5. **Gestalt** | | | | | | **Gestalt psychology** says that | | | viewing psychological events as | | | organized, structured wholes | | | allows us to better comprehend | | | them. According to this | | | viewpoint, breaking down events | | | into smaller components does not | | | allow us to completely comprehend | | | behaviour. | | | | | | To comprehend the perception of a | | | flower, for example, we must | | | consider the entirety of the | | | experience. We couldn\'t | | | comprehend such a sense by | | | describing it in terms of shapes, | | | colours, sizes, and so forth. We | | | couldn\'t comprehend issue | | | solution by looking at minute | | | components of observable | | | behaviour. | | | | | | **EMERGENCE OF COGNITIVE | | | PSYCHOLOGY** | | | | | | A movement known as the | | | **\"cognitive revolution\"** | | | arose in the **early 1950s**. The | | | notion that most of human | | | behaviour can be explained in | | | terms of how individuals think is | | | known as **cognitivism**. It | | | refutes the idea that | | | psychologists should avoid | | | investigating mental processes | | | because they are difficult to | | | see. Cognitivism is a hybrid of | | | prior analytical approaches such | | | as behaviorism and Gestaltism. | | | | | | **Karl Spencer Lashley** | | | (1890--1958), a former student of | | | Watson\'s, brashly questioned the | | | behaviorist idea that the human | | | brain is a passive organ just | | | responding to external | | | environmental circumstances. | | | Lashley, on the other hand, saw | | | the brain as an active, dynamic | | | behavior organizer. | | | | | | **Donald Hebb** (1949) presented | | | the notion of cell assemblages as | | | the basis for learning in the | | | brain, although at a different | | | level of study. Cell assemblies | | | are complex brain structures that | | | form as a result of repeated | | | stimulation. | | | | | | By the end of the 1950s, some | | | psychologists were attracted by | | | the intriguing concept that | | | machines may be trained to | | | exhibit intelligent information | | | processing. | | | | | | Turing (1950) suggested the | | | **Turing Test** by which a | | | computer program would be judged | | | as a successful to the extent | | | that its output was | | | indistinguishable, by humans, | | | from the output of humans. | | | | | | By 1956, **Artificial | | | Intelligence**, a new phrase had | | | entered our vocabulary. | | | Artificial Intelligence is the | | | attempt by humans to construct | | | systems that show intelligence | | | and, particularly, the | | | intelligent processing of | | | information. Chess-playing | | | programs which now can beat most | | | humans are examples of artificial | | | intelligence. | | | | | | By early 1960s, developments in | | | psychobiology, linguistics, | | | anthropology, and artificial | | | intelligence, as well as the | | | reactions against behaviorism by | | | many mainstream psychologists, | | | converged to create an atmosphere | | | ripe for revolution. | | | | | | One of the most famous early | | | articles in cognitive psychology | | | was, oddly enough, on "the magic | | | number seven." **George Miller** | | | (1956) noted that the number | | | seven appeared in many different | | | places in cognitive psychology. | | | | | | By the 1970s cognitive psychology | | | was recognized widely as a major | | | field of psychological study with | | | a set of distinctive set of | | | research methods. | | | | | | In the 1970s, **Jerry Fodor** | | | (1973) popularized the concept of | | | the **modularity of mind**. He | | | argued that the mind has distinct | | | modules or special-purpose | | | systems, to deal with linguistic | | | and, possibly, other kinds of | | | information. Modularity implies | | | that the process that are used in | | | one domain of processing, such as | | | linguistic operate independently | | | of processes in other domains. | | | | | | **COGNITION AND INTELLIGENCE** | | | | | | **What Is Intelligence?** | | | | | | **Intelligence** is the capacity | | | to learn from experience, using | | | meta-cognitive processes to | | | enhance learning and the ability | | | to: adapt to the surrounding | | | environment. | | | | | | **Cultural intelligence** is used | | | to describe a person's ability to | | | adapt to a variety of challenges | | | in diverse cultures. | | | | | | **Three Cognitive Models of | | | Intelligence** | | | | | | 1. **Carroll: Three-Stratum | | | Model of Intelligence** | | | | | | According to this model, | | | intelligence comprises a | | | hierarchy of cognitive abilities | | | comprising three strata: | | | | | | **Strata I** includes many | | | narrow, specific abilities | | | (spelling, ability, speed of | | | reasoning). **Strata II** include | | | various broad abilities (fluid | | | intelligence, crystallized | | | intelligence, short term memory, | | | long term storages and retrieval, | | | information-processing speed). | | | **Stratum III** is just a single | | | general intelligence (sometimes | | | called g) | | | | | | Of these strata, the most | | | interesting is middle stratum: | | | Fluid ability and crystallized | | | ability. | | | | | | **Fluid ability** is speed and | | | accuracy of abstract reasoning, | | | especially for novel problems. | | | **Crystallized ability** is | | | accumulated knowledge and | | | vocabulary. Learning and memory | | | process processes, visual | | | perception, auditory perception, | | | facile production of ideas and | | | speed are included in middle | | | stratum. | | | | | | 2. **Gardner: Theory of Multiple | | | Intelligence** | | | | | | Howard Gardner has proposed a | | | theory of multiple intelligence | | | in which intelligence, comprises | | | multiple independent construct, | | | not just a single, unitary | | | construct. | | | | | | This theory distinguishes eight | | | distinct intelligences that are | | | relatively independent of each | | | other: **Linguistic, | | | Logical-mathematical | | | intelligence, Spatial | | | Intelligence, Musical | | | intelligence, Bodily-kinesthetic | | | intelligence, Interpersonal | | | intelligence, Intrapersonal | | | Intelligence and Naturalist | | | intelligence.** | | | | | | 3. **Sternberg: The Triarchic | | | Theory of Intelligence** | | | | | | Robert Sternberg tends to | | | emphasize the extent to which | | | various aspects of intelligence | | | work together. | | | | | | According to Triarchic theory of | | | human intelligences, intelligence | | | comprises three aspects: | | | creative, analytical and | | | practical. **Creative abilities** | | | are used to generate novel ideas. | | | **Analytical abilities** | | | ascertain whether your ideas (and | | | those of others) are good ones. | | | **Practical abilities** are used | | | to implement the ideas and | | | relationship of the three parts. | | | | | | According also to the theory, | | | cognition is the **center of | | | intelligence**. | | | | | | Information processing in | | | cognition can be viewed in terms | | | of three different kinds of | | | components: metacomponents, | | | performance components, and | | | knowledge --acquisition | | | componenets. | | | | | | **Metacomponents** are higher | | | order executive processes | | | (example: metacognition) used to | | | plan, monitor, and evaluate | | | problem solving, **performance | | | component** are lower order | | | processes use for implementing | | | the commands of the | | | metacomponents and | | | **knowledge-acquisition | | | components** are the processes | | | used for learning how to solve | | | the problems in the first place. | | | | | | **RESEARCH METHODS IN COGNITIVE | | | PSYCHOLOGY** | | | | | | Cognitive psychologists use | | | various methods to explore how | | | human thinks. | | | | | | 1. **Laboratory or other | | | controlled experiments** -- | | | obtain samples of performance | | | at a particular time and | | | space | | | | | | 2. **Psychobiological research** | | | -- study animal brains and | | | human brains, using | | | post-mortem studies and | | | various psychobiological | | | measures or imaging | | | techniques. | | | | | | 3. **Self-reports** -- obtain | | | participants' reports of own | | | cognition in progress as they | | | recollected | | | | | | 4. **Case studies** -- engage in | | | intensive study of a single | | | individual, drawing general | | | conclusions about | | | behavior.(example: The case | | | of Phineas Gage, a man with | | | an iron rod through his | | | head). | | | | | | 5. **Naturalistic Observations** | | | -- observe real life | | | situations as in classrooms, | | | work settings, or at home | | | | | | 6. **Computer simulation** -- | | | attempts to make computers | | | simulate human cognitive | | | performance on various tasks | | | | | | 7. **Artificial intelligence** | | | -- attempts to make computers | | | demonstrate intelligent | | | cognitive performance, | | | regardless of whether the | | | process resembles human | | | cognitive processing | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+  **Performance Tasks** +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Analyze how various research methods in cognitive psychology (total | | of 5) reflect empiricist and rationalist approaches to gaining | | knowledge. Use the guide table below. (40 pts) | | | | Research Method **EMPIRICIST VIEW** **RATIONALIST VIEW** | | ----------------- --------------------- ---------------------- | | 1. | | 2. | | 3. | | 4. | | 5. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **Understanding Directed Assess** +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ***Rubric for Performance Task*** | | | | This pointing system will apply for each of your answers (e.g. | | empiricist view on research method 1, then rationalist view on | | research method 1, and so on\...) | | | | ***4pts*** | | | | ***3pts*** | | * | | **2pts*** | | ***1pt*** | | ------------------------------------------------------------------- | | --------------------------------------------------------------------- | | ----- --------------------------------------------------------------- | | ------------------------------------------------------------------- - | | --------------------------------------------------------------------- | | ----------------------------------------------------- --------------- | | --------------------------------------------------------------------- | | ------------------------------------------------- | | A complete response with detailed explanation, shows complete under | | standing of the question and goes beyond the requirements of the prob | | lem Good solid response with clear explanation, shows substantial u | | nderstanding of the problem and meets requirements of the problem E | | xplanation is unclear, response shows some understanding of the probl | | em and hardly meets the requirements of the problem Misses key poin | | ts, response shows a complete lack of understanding of the problem an | | d does not meet the requirements of the problem | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **Learning Resources** ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Sternberg, R., Sternberg, K. & Mio, J. (2012). Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition. Wadsworth Cengage Learning ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------