Cogni Finals PDF

COGNI FINALS Lesson 5: Memory: Models and Research Methods Visuospatial Sketchpad: Processes visual and spatial 1. Encoding: Converting sensory data into mental information. representations....

COGNI FINALS Lesson 5: Memory: Models and Research Methods Visuospatial Sketchpad: Processes visual and spatial 1. Encoding: Converting sensory data into mental information. representations. Phonological Loop: Holds and processes verbal 2. Storage: Holding encoded information in memory. information. 3. Retrieval: Recalling or using stored information. o Phonological Storage: Holds verbal information. Tasks Used for Measuring Memory o Subvocal Rehearsal: Rehearses information Recall: Retrieving information requiring deep processing. verbally. Recognition: Identifying previously learned information Episodic Buffer: Integrates information across different effortlessly. memory systems. Relearning (Savings): Number of trials needed to learn previously 1. Working Memory: The system responsible for acquired material again. temporarily holding and manipulating information needed for complex cognitive tasks such as reasoning, ❖ Explicit-memory tasks: Consciously recalling specific comprehension, and learning. information. 2. Brief Memory Buffer: Used interchangeably with ❖ Declarative-knowledge tasks: Recalling factual information. working memory, it refers to the temporary storage and ❖ Recall tasks: Generating a fact, word, or item from memory. manipulation of information distinct from long-term ❖ Serial-recall task: Repeating items from a list in the exact memory. order heard or read. 3. Phonological Loop: A component of working memory ❖ Free-recall task: Recalling items from a list in any order. responsible for the temporary storage of auditory ❖ Cued-recall task: Remembering paired items and recalling information (especially speech-related). one item when given its pair. 4. Visuospatial Sketchpad: Another component of ❖ Recognition tasks: Identifying an item as previously working memory responsible for temporary storage and encountered. manipulation of visual and spatial information. ❖ Implicit-memory tasks: Using information from memory 5. Central Executive: The component of working memory without conscious awareness of doing so. that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop, ❖ Tasks involving procedural knowledge: Recalling learned visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer. It is involved skills or procedures. in the allocation of attention and resources. 6. Episodic Buffer: A recently proposed addition to the Implicit Memory: Unconscious use of stored information. model of working memory by Baddeley, involved in Explicit Memory: Conscious retrieval of personal experiences and integrating information across different domains into facts. coherent episodes. Priming: Non-conscious improvement in processing due to Researchers and Their Findings: previous exposure. 1. Rudner et al., 2007: Studied the involvement of the Procedural Memory: Memory for learned skills and actions. bilateral frontal lobes and portions of the temporal lobes, Process-Dissociation Model: Suggests both implicit and explicit including the left hippocampus, in episodic buffer memory can be measured by a single task. operations. Culture-Reduced Tests: Measure skills and knowledge 2. Squire & Knowlton, 2000: Contributed to irrespective of cultural background. understanding the distinction between short-term or Traditional Models of Memory: working memory and long-term memory systems. Primary Memory: Temporary storage in current use. 3. Gazzaniga et al., 2009: Explored the activation in the Secondary Memory: Long-term storage. left hemisphere of the lateral frontal and inferior parietal Atkinson-Shiffrin Model: Three memory stores: lobes as well as the temporal lobe during tasks related to Sensory Store: Briefly holds sensory information. the phonological loop. Short-term Store: Holds information briefly. 4. Baddeley, 2006: Known for his work on the multi- Long-term Store: Stores information indefinitely. component model of working memory, detailing the Iconic Store: Visual sensory register. phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and central George Sperling: Studied iconic memory with partial and whole- executive functions. report procedures. 5. Logie & Della Sala, 2005: Investigated the activation Short-Term Store: Holds information briefly unless rehearsed. patterns of the visuospatial sketchpad depending on task Magical Number 7 ± 2: Approximate capacity of short-term difficulty and retention intervals. memory. 6. Haxby et al., 1995: Studied the activation patterns in Chunking: Organizing information into manageable units to different brain areas during tasks involving the improve memory. visuospatial sketchpad, noting variations depending on Long-Term Store: Stores information for extended periods. task demands. Permastore: Very long-term storage of information. Multiple Memory Systems Levels-of-Processing Model: Memory retrieval based on depth of Semantic Memory: Stores general world knowledge. encoding. Episodic Memory: Stores personally experienced Self-Reference Effect (SRE): Better memory for information events. relevant to oneself. Self-Schema: Internal system of cues about personal attributes and experiences. Findings about Semantic and Episodic Memory Working Memory: Holds limited information for immediate use. Support for distinction based on cognitive and Central Executive: Coordinates attention and responses. neurological research (Tulving, 1983, 1989). 1 Yvan qt COGNI FINALS Debate exists; some suggest episodic memory might be a specialized form of semantic memory (Tulving, 1984, 1986). HERA Model: Indicates left prefrontal hemisphere activation during semantic memory tasks (Nyberg et al., 1996; Tulving et al., 1994). Connectionist Perspective (PDP) Connectionist models like PDP emphasize interconnected nodes and spreading activation in memory processes. Measuring Working Memory: Various tasks include retention- delay, temporally ordered load, temporal order, n-back, digit-span, and arithmetic tasks. Multiple Memory Systems: Semantic Memory: Stores general world knowledge, not tied to personal experiences. Episodic Memory: Stores personally experienced events or episodes. Taxonomy of Memory Systems: Declarative (Explicit) Memory: Includes semantic and episodic memory. Nondeclarative (Implicit) Memory: Includes procedural memory, priming effects, simple classical conditioning, habituation, sensitization, and perceptual aftereffects. Connectionist Perspective (PDP): Models memory as interconnected nodes with spreading activation facilitating knowledge retrieval. Exceptional Memory & Neuropsychology Mnemonics and exceptional memory cases provide insights into memory enhancement techniques. Synesthesia: Experience of sensations in a different sensory modality. Hypermnesia: Phenomenon where forgotten memories are retrieved. Amnesia: Severe memory loss; includes retrograde and anterograde types, often studied in conditions like Alzheimer's Disease. Types of Amnesia 1. Retrograde Amnesia o Definition: Loss of memories and information acquired before the onset of amnesia. o Characteristics: Difficulty recalling past events or experiences. o Causes: Often due to brain trauma or neurological conditions affecting memory areas. 2. Anterograde Amnesia o Definition: Inability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia. o Characteristics: Can remember past events but struggles to remember new information. o Causes: Typically caused by damage to the hippocampus or other parts of the brain involved in memory consolidation. 2 Yvan qt COGNI FINALS ORGANIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE IN THE MIND Classical Concepts have clearly defined features (e.g., GROUP 7 – MODULE bachelor). I. Declarative vs Procedural Knowledge Fuzzy Concepts are harder to define precisely (e.g., The preceding chapter discussed how knowledge can be game, death). represented as propositions and images. In this chapter, we explore Exemplars are typical examples within a category: how our knowledge is organized for effective retrieval. We expand Example: Different types of birds exemplify variations this discussion to include various methods of organizing like songbirds, birds of prey, and waterfowl. declarative knowledge, which can be expressed in words and Synthesis combines feature-based and prototype theories for symbols (i.e., "knowing that"). comprehensive categorization, where each category has both Declarative Knowledge is information easily recalled or stated, defining (core) and characteristic (prototype) features. such as: Facts: III. Production of Procedural Knowledge / Nondeclarative o There are 24 hours in a day. Knowledge o There are 7 days in a week. Procedural Knowledge involves skills and actions learned Vocabulary: through practice: o Understanding cognitive psychology (a branch Implicit Memory includes skills performed of psychology focusing on how people think). unconsciously, like riding a bike or dancing. o Knowing the meaning of attention (the act of Explicit Memory requires conscious effort for recall, directing the mind to perceive, listen, and like remembering a to-do list or phone number. understand). Production Systems organize procedural knowledge using sets of Procedural Knowledge involves knowing how to perform actions rules (productions): or tasks (i.e., "knowing how"): These rules govern tasks through if-then conditions and Skills: can include sub-routines for detailed task execution. o Knowing how to communicate effectively. Nondeclarative Knowledge encompasses various mental Tasks: representations: o Knowing how to use a mobile phone. Includes perceptual, motor, and cognitive skills For example, procedural knowledge includes knowing how to (procedural knowledge), simple associative knowledge drive a car, write your signature, ride a bicycle to the grocery store, (conditioning), and non-associative knowledge or catch a ball, which relies on mental representations of (habituation, sensitization). procedures. Primed by cues or stimuli, such as semantic priming in meaningful Testing Your Declarative and Procedural Knowledge Interaction contexts or spreading activation theories in networks, enhances between Declarative and Procedural Knowledge: cognitive processing. "Who knows how to fry an egg?" o Knowing the process of frying an egg involves procedural knowledge (action-oriented). o Knowing the brand of oil used involves declarative knowledge (fact-oriented). II. Organization of Declarative Knowledge Organization of Declarative Knowledge concerns the conceptual organization that helps us understand the world: Concepts are ideas encapsulated in words, like "apple," which relate to other concepts such as redness, roundness, or fruit. Categories group similar items or concepts: o Natural Categories occur in nature (e.g., birds, trees). o Artifact Categories are human-designed for specific functions (e.g., automobiles, kitchen appliances). Types of Categories: Feature-Based Categories rely on defining features that uniquely characterize a category. o Example: A bachelor is male, unmarried, and an adult. Prototype Theory groups items based on similarity to an average model (prototype), not solely on defining features. o Example: Birds share characteristic features like flight, but not all birds can fly (e.g., ostriches). Classical vs Fuzzy Concepts distinguish categories: 3 Yvan qt COGNI FINALS Language Lexical access: The process of retrieving words from the Language can be defined as a system of conventional symbols— mental lexicon during language processing. whether spoken, manual (signed), or written—through which Developmental Dyslexia: Genetic dyslexia present from human beings, as members of a social group, express themselves birth. and participate in their culture. It serves multiple functions Primary Dyslexia: Genetically inherited dyslexia. including communication, identity expression, play, imaginative expression, and emotional release. Secondary Dyslexia: Dyslexia due to brain development issues during early pregnancy. Every typical person acquires the ability to use this system of communication during childhood, both as a sender and receiver. In Acquired Dyslexia: Dyslexia resulting from brain injury spoken language, these symbols are sounds produced by or disease affecting language processing centers. movements of organs in the throat and mouth. In signed languages, symbols can be hand or body movements, gestures, or facial "Wernicke's area" and "Broca's area," which are both critical expressions. regions of the brain associated with language processing. Through these symbols, individuals can convey information, 1. Broca's Area: Located in the frontal lobe, typically in express emotions, influence others, and interact with varying the left hemisphere of the brain, Broca's area is involved degrees of friendliness or hostility towards others who use the in the production of speech and language comprehension. same symbol system. Language thus plays a fundamental role in Damage to this area can result in expressive aphasia, human interaction and societal functioning. where individuals struggle to produce coherent speech but can understand language. Speech Perception and Phonology: 2. Wernicke's Area: Found in the posterior section of the left temporal lobe, Wernicke's area is primarily Speech perception: The ability to rapidly process and associated with language comprehension and the understand language. understanding of spoken and written language. Damage Phoneme: The smallest unit of sound in a language. to Wernicke's area can lead to receptive aphasia, where Coarticulation: The phenomenon where the articulation individuals have difficulty understanding spoken or of one sound is influenced by surrounding sounds. written language, even though they can speak fluently. Categorical perception: The brain's categorization of Together, Broca's area and Wernicke's area, along with other speech sounds into distinct groups. interconnected regions, form a network known as the "language Motor Theory of Speech Perception: Understanding network" in the brain. This network is crucial for the production, spoken words by observing movements of the speaker's comprehension, and processing of language. mouth and vocal tract. TRACE model: A dynamic approach to speech perception that emphasizes processing levels from acoustic features to phonemes and words. McGurk effect: The interaction between visual and auditory stimuli affecting speech perception. Syntax and Grammar: Syntax: The systematic way words are combined to form meaningful sentences. Phrase-structure Grammar: Analyzes sentence structure based on phrases. Transformational Grammar: Involves rules for transforming underlying propositions into sentences. Deep Structure: The underlying syntactic representation linking phrase structures. Surface Structure: The resulting phrase structures after transformations. Prescriptive grammar: Rules prescribing the "correct" use of language. Descriptive grammar: Describes the structures, functions, and relationships of words in a language. Syntactical Priming: The tendency to use syntactic structures similar to those recently heard. Dyslexia and Related Terms: Dyslexia: Difficulty in reading, often despite normal intelligence. Phonological awareness: The ability to recognize and manipulate sounds in spoken language. Phonological reading: Decoding written language using sound-letter correspondence. Phonological coding: Mentally representing spoken language sounds using symbols. 4 Yvan qt COGNI FINALS LANGUAGE IN CONTEXT Single-System Hypothesis: Differences among Languages o Suggests both languages are represented in a Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (Linguistic Relativity): single system or brain region. o Language influences thinking processes. o Damage to a brain region results in roughly o Named after Sapir and Whorf, influential equal impairment to both languages. proponents. Dual-System Hypothesis: o Widely discussed across social and behavioral o Suggests languages are represented in separate sciences. systems of the mind. Linguistic Universal: o Damage to a brain region leads to different o Patterns found across all languages and degrees of impairment in each language. cultures. Brain Damage and Bilingualism: o Contrasted with linguistic relativity (Sapir- o Studies on bilinguals with brain damage show Whorf). varying patterns of language recovery. Bilingualism and Dialects o Recovery of languages post-trauma can vary; Types of Language Users: sometimes the first language recovers first, o Monolinguals: Speak only one language. sometimes the second, and sometimes recovery o Bilinguals: Speak two languages. is equal. o Multilinguals: Speak more than two o Factors influencing recovery include age of languages. acquisition of the second language and pre- Bilingualism Advantages and Disadvantages: incident language proficiency. o Advantages: LANGUAGE MIXTURES AND CHANGE ▪ Enhances executive functions Pidgin and Creole: (prefrontal cortex benefits). o Pidgin: Simplified communication that o Disadvantages: develops between groups with different ▪ Slower access to vocabulary, languages in contact. potentially smaller vocabularies. o Creole: A more developed form of pidgin with Types of Bilingualism: its own grammar, used as a native language. o Additive Bilingualism: o Modern creoles may resemble protolanguages, ▪ Second language adds to a well- early forms of languages in evolution. developed first language. Dialects and Linguicism: ▪ Enhances thinking ability (e.g., o Dialect: Regional variety of a language bilingual upbringing). distinguished by vocabulary, syntax, and o Subtractive Bilingualism: pronunciation. ▪ Second language replaces elements o Linguicism: Discrimination or stereotyping of the first language. based on dialects, where certain dialects are ▪ Can decrease thinking ability in assigned lower social status than others. some cases. NEUROSCIENCE AND BILINGUALISM Language Learning Types: Learning a second language: o Simultaneous Bilingualism: Learning two o Increases gray matter in the left inferior languages from birth. parietal cortex. o Sequential Bilingualism: Learning one o Density of gray matter is positively correlated language first, then another. with proficiency. o Beneficial effects are more pronounced when Factors Influencing Second Language Acquisition: learning begins at a young age. o Debate on the impact of age: SLIPS OF THE TONGUE ▪ Some aspects of language acquisition may be more challenging after Definition: adolescence. o Unintended errors in speech where what is meant to be said differs from what is actually ▪ Vocabulary comprehension and said. fluency can still be achieved effectively after adolescence. o Freudian slips may reflect unconscious processing with psychological significance. LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT Age and Language Acquisition: Types of Slips: o Some aspects of syntax can be acquired readily o Anticipation: Using a sound or word from later in a sentence earlier. even after adolescence. o Native-like pronunciation often depends on o Perseveration: Using a language element that was appropriate earlier but not later. early acquisition, but individual differences allow some learners to achieve native-like o Substitution: Using one language element instead of another. abilities later in life. o Age and proficiency in a language are o Reversal (or transposition): Switching the positions of two language elements. negatively correlated, suggesting earlier acquisition increases the likelihood of o Spoonerism: Reversing the initial sounds of two words to create different words. achieving high proficiency. BILINGUALISM: ONE SYSTEM OR TWO? 5 Yvan qt COGNI FINALS o Malapropism: Substituting a word with a shovel the snow' or 'Would you help me shovel similar sounding one but with a different the snow?'" meaning. 3. Commissive METAPHORICAL LANGUAGE o Description: Commits the speaker to a future Components of Metaphors: course of action. o Tenor: The main subject. o Example: "If Jack responds, 'I’m busy now, o Vehicle: What the tenor is compared to. but I’ll help you shovel the snow later.'" o Ground: Similarities between the tenor and 4. Expressive vehicle. o Description: States the speaker's psychological o Tension: Differences between the tenor and state or feelings. vehicle. o Example: "If Mr. Smith tells Jack later, 'I’m Theories of Metaphor: really upset that you didn’t come through in o Traditional Comparison View: Emphasizes helping me shovel the snow.'" similarities and analogical relationships. 5. Declaration (or Performative) o Anomaly View: Highlights dissimilarities o Description: The act of making the statement between the tenor and vehicle. brings about a new state of affairs. o Domain-Interaction View: Integrates aspects o Example: "'You’re fired' changes the of comparison and anomaly, sees metaphors as employment status from employed to more than just comparison. unemployed." o Class-Inclusion View: Views metaphors as INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS statements of category membership rather than Definition: Achieving goals indirectly through oblique or comparison. indirect requests. ILANGUAGE IN A SOCIAL CONTEXT Types of Indirect Speech Acts: Pragmatics: o Request for Information: E.g., "Can you tell o Study of how language is used in social me where the restroom is?" contexts. o Desire: E.g., "I would be grateful if you told o Includes sociolinguistics and understanding me where the restroom is." how language adapts to different contexts. o Future Action: E.g., "Would you tell me o Nonverbal communication (gestures, vocal where the restroom is?" inflections, personal space) helps establish o Reasons: E.g., "I need to know where the common ground. restroom is." o Proxemics: Study of interpersonal distance and PINKER'S THEORY OF INDIRECT SPEECH positioning during communication. Theory Overview: SPEECH ACTS o Developed by Steven Pinker and colleagues. Direct Speech Acts: o Highlights that communication involves both o Categorized by purpose: cooperation and conflict. ▪ Assertives (statements of fact), o Indirect speech allows speakers to voice ▪ Directives (commands or requests), ambiguous requests to avoid adverse reactions. ▪ Commissives (promises or Three Parts of Pinker's Theory: commitments), o Plausible Deniability: Being indirect to ▪ Expressives (expressions of maintain plausible deniability. feelings), o Relationship Negotiation: Softening requests ▪ Declarations (bringing about changes to preserve relationships. by speaking). o Language as Digital Medium: Using language for purposes beyond information Searle's Taxonomy: transfer. o Classifies different types of speech acts based CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESSFUL CONVERSATIONS on what can be accomplished through speech. o Demonstrates the relationship between Cooperative Principle: language structure and function. o Aim to communicate in ways that make it easy SPEECH ACT DESCRIPTIONS AND EXAMPLES for the listener to understand. 1. Representative (or Assertive) Grice's Maxims (Conversational Postulates): o Description: Conveys a belief that a o Maxim of Quantity: Provide enough proposition is true, supported by evidence or information without excess. information. o Maxim of Quality: Speak truthfully. o Example: "Mr. Smith says, 'It’s important for o Maxim of Relation: Be relevant. Jack to learn responsibility. Asking him to help NEUROPSYCHOLOGY OF LANGUAGE shovel the driveway is one way he can learn BRAIN STRUCTURES INVOLVED IN LANGUAGE about responsibility.'" Word Recognition: 2. Directive o Middle part of the Superior Temporal Sulcus o Description: Attempts to get the listener to do (STS) responds strongly to speech sounds, something, often structured as a question. predominantly in the left hemisphere. o Example: "Mr. Smith wants Jack to help him shovel snow. He can say, 'Please help me 6 Yvan qt COGNI FINALS Semantic Processing: Anomic Aphasia: o Five brain regions involved in storing and o Characteristics: Difficulty naming objects or retrieving meaning, with activation primarily in retrieving specific words. the left hemisphere. o Cause: Impaired word retrieval without Syntax: significant impairment in other language o Studied using event-related potentials (ERPs), functions. where P600 indicates grammar mistakes and o Examples: Inability to recall names of objects N400 indicates meaning mistakes. or specific categories of words. Language Acquisition: Autism o Different brain areas are involved when Overview: learning language compared to using already o Characteristics: Developmental disorder known languages. affecting social behavior, language, and o Left hemisphere is dominant for routine cognition. language tasks, while the right hemisphere is o Biological Basis: Linked to genetic factors involved in processing new information. affecting various brain regions. Plasticity of the Brain: o Brain Areas Affected: Frontal and parietal o After brain injury, other parts of the brain may lobes, cerebellum, brainstem, corpus callosum, compensate for damaged areas, affecting basal ganglia, amygdala, and hippocampus. language abilities. o Behavioral Patterns: Repetitive movements, stereotyped interests, and focusing on lips Sex Differences in Language Processing: rather than eyes during interactions. o Functional MRI (fMRI) studies show different activation patterns between men and women o Language Development: Approximately half of children with autism do not develop during linguistic tasks. functional speech. o Men show more left hemisphere dominance for phonological processing. o Echolalia: Automatic repetition of words or phrases, common among toddlers learning to o Women exhibit more bilateral activation, talk and individuals with autism spectrum suggesting less lateralization in linguistic disorder. function. o Women may compensate better for lesions in the left hemisphere with functional offsets in the right hemisphere. THE BRAIN AND LANGUAGE The Brain and Sign Language Lesions and Disruptions: Similar locations of lesions disrupt both speech and signing abilities. Hemispheric Patterns: Right-handers with signing deficits typically have left-hemisphere lesions, similar to deficits observed in speech. However, some left-handers with signing deficits may show right-hemisphere lesions. Aphasia Wernicke’s Aphasia: o Characteristics: Difficulty understanding spoken words and producing coherent sentences, despite fluent speech. o Cause: Damage to Wernicke’s area in the brain. o Impact: Requires alternative communication methods beyond verbal speech. Broca’s Aphasia: o Characteristics: Difficulty producing grammatically correct speech while comprehension remains relatively intact. o Cause: Damage to Broca’s area in the brain. o Differentiation: Speech lacks proper grammar, but understanding of spoken language is preserved. Global Aphasia: o Characteristics: Severe impairment in both understanding and producing speech. o Cause: Lesions affecting both Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas. o Prevalence: Found in a significant portion of individuals immediately following a stroke. 7 Yvan qt