Psychology: Theories of Personality - Global Edition 6th Edition PDF

Psychology Sixth Edition, Global Edition Chapter 13 Theories of Personality Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Learning Objectives (1 of 3) 13.1 De...

Psychology Sixth Edition, Global Edition Chapter 13 Theories of Personality Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Learning Objectives (1 of 3) 13.1 Define the term personality and identify several traditional perspectives in the study of personality. 13.2 Explain how the mind and personality are structured, according to Freud. 13.3 Distinguish among the five psychosexual stages of personality development. 13.4 Describe how the neo-Freudians modified Freud’s theory. 13.5 Evaluate the influence of Freudian theory on modern personality theories. 13.6 Compare and contrast the learning theories of Bandura and Rotter. Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Learning Objectives (2 of 3) 13.7 Evaluate the strengths and limitations of the behavioral and social cognitive learning views of personality. 13.8 Describe how humanists such as Carl Rogers explain personality. 13.9 Evaluate the strengths and limitations of the humanistic view of personality. 13.10 Describe early attempts to use traits to conceptualize personality. 13.11 Identify the five trait dimensions of the five-factor model of personality. 13.12 Evaluate the strengths and limitations of the trait view of personality. Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Learning Objectives (3 of 3) 13.13 Explain how twin studies and adoption studies are used in the field of behavioral genetics. 13.14 Evaluate the role of neuroscience in the investigation of biological bases of personality. 13.15 Summarize current research on the heritability and neuroscience of personality. 13.16 Identify the advantages and disadvantages of using interviews, behavioral assessments, and personality inventories to measure personality. 13.17 Identify the advantages and disadvantages of using projective personality tests. 13.18 Identify ways in which you informally assess the personality of others. Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.1 Theories of Personality (1 of 2) Learning Objective 13.1 Define the term personality and identify several traditional perspectives in the study of personality. Personality: the unique and relatively stable ways in which people think, feel, and behave – Includes character and temperament ▪Character: value judgments made about a person’s moral and ethical behavior ▪Temperament: the enduring characteristics with which each person is born Personality is difficult to measure Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.1 Theories of Personality (2 of 2) Traditional perspectives in personality ‒ Psychodynamic perspective ‒ Behavioral perspective ‒ Humanistic perspective ‒ Trait perspective Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.2–13.5 Psychodynamic Perspectives Do you agree with any of the following? – People change over time – Past experiences shape who we are – We are not always aware of why we do the things we do The concepts above are consistent with ideas put forth by Freud or others that modified aspects of Freud’s theories about personality. Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.2 Freud’s Conception of Personality (1 of 8) Learning Objective 13.2 Explain how the mind and personality are structured, according to Freud. Freud was founder of psychoanalytic movement Europe during the Victorian Age and sexual repression – Men supposedly unable to control their “animal” desires; a good Victorian husband would father several children with his wife and then turn to a mistress for sexual comfort, leaving his virtuous wife untouched – Women were not supposed to have sexual urges Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.2 Freud’s Conception of Personality (2 of 8) The Structure of the Mind – Freud divided mind into the preconscious, conscious and unconscious – Believed unconscious mind was most important factor in human behavior and personality Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.2 Freud’s Conception of Personality (3 of 8) Preconscious mind: information is available but not currently conscious Conscious mind: level aware of immediate surroundings and perceptions Unconscious mind: level in which thoughts, feelings, memories, and other information that are not easily or voluntarily brought into consciousness are kept Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.2 Freud’s Conception of Personality (4 of 8) Freud’s Divisions of the Personality – Personality divided into three parts, each existing at one or more levels of consciousness – How parts develop and interact with each other is basis for Freud’s theory – Each part in constant state of conflict with others ▪ Id: focused on immediate gratification and survival ▪ Superego: contains the conscience, provides sense of right and wrong ▪ Ego: the “I” caught in the middle Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 13.1: Freud’s Conception of the Personality This iceberg represents the three levels of the mind. The part of the iceberg visible above the surface is the conscious mind. Just below the surface is the preconscious mind, everything that is not yet part of the conscious mind. Hidden deep below the surface is the unconscious mind, feelings, memories, thoughts, and urges that cannot be easily brought into consciousness. While two of the three parts of the personality (ego and superego) exist at all three levels of awareness, the id is completely in the unconscious mind. Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.2 Freud’s Conception of Personality (5 of 8) Id: contains all basic biological drives ‒ Present at birth ‒ Completely unconscious ‒ Pleasure principle: principle by which the id functions; immediate satisfaction of needs without regard for the consequences Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.2 Freud’s Conception of Personality (6 of 8) Ego: part of the personality that develops out of a need to deal with reality ‒ Mostly conscious ‒ Rational and logical – Reality principle: principle by which the ego functions; the satisfaction of the demands of the id only when negative consequences will not result Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.2 Freud’s Conception of Personality (7 of 8) Superego: part of the personality that acts as a moral center – Partly conscious – Ego ideal: part of superego that contains the standards for moral behavior – Conscience: part of superego that produces pride or guilt, depending on how well behavior matches or does not match the ego ideal Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.2 Freud’s Conception of Personality (8 of 8) Psychological defense mechanisms: unconscious distortions of a person’s perception of reality that reduce stress and anxiety Manage the continuous conflicts of the id, ego and superego Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Table 13.1: The Psychological Defense Mechanisms (1 of 2) Defense Mechanism and Definition Example Denial: refusal to recognize or acknowledge A mother refuses to acknowledge her a threatening situation. son was killed during his recent military deployment. Repression: “pushing” threatening or Eli, who was sexually abused as a child, conflicting events or situations out of cannot remember the abuse at all. conscious memory. Rationalization: making up acceptable “If I don’t have breakfast, I can have that excuses for unacceptable behavior. piece of cake later on without hurting my diet.” Projection: placing one’s own unacceptable Ella is attracted to her sister’s husband thoughts onto others, as if the thoughts but denies this and believes the husband belonged to them and not to oneself. is attracted to her. Reaction formation: forming an emotional Jaden has negative prejudices reaction or attitude that is the opposite of toward other religions but goes out one’s threatening or unacceptable actual thoughts. of his way to appear open-minded and accepting. Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Table 13.1: The Psychological Defense Mechanisms (2 of 2) Defense Mechanism and Definition Example Displacement: expressing feelings that would Sandra gets reprimanded by her boss be threatening if directed at the real target and goes home to angrily pick a fight onto a less threatening substitute target. with her husband. Regression: falling back on childlike patterns Four-year-old Zachary starts wetting his as a way of coping with stressful situations. bed after his parents bring home a new baby. Identification: trying to become like someone Amber really admires Kaylee, the most else to deal with one’s anxiety. popular girl in school, and tries to copy her behavior and dress. Compensation (substitution): trying to make José is not good at athletics, so he up for areas in which a lack is perceived by puts all of his energies into becoming superior in some other area. becoming an academic scholar. Sublimation: turning socially unacceptable Angel, who is very aggressive, urges into socially acceptable behavior. becomes a mixed martial arts fighter. Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.3 Stages of Personality Development (1 of 5) Learning Objective 13.3 Distinguish among the five psychosexual stages of personality development. Psychosexual stages: five stages of personality development proposed by Freud and tied to the sexual development of the child Erogenous zone: area of the body that produces pleasurable feelings, becomes important and can become the source of conflicts Fixation: disorder in which the person does not fully resolve the conflict in a particular psychosexual stage, resulting in personality traits and behavior associated with that earlier stage Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.3 Stages of Personality Development (2 of 5) Stage 1 - Oral stage ‒ First 18 months ‒ The erogenous zone is the mouth ‒ Weaning is the primary conflict ▪ Weaning too soon or too late creates too little or too much satisfaction of the child’s oral needs and may result in oral fixation Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.3 Stages of Personality Development (3 of 5) Stage 2 - Anal stage ‒ Occurring between 18 and 36 months of age ‒ The erogenous zone is the anus ‒ Toilet training is the source of conflict  Fixation is when toilet training is too harsh  Anal expulsive personality: a person fixated in the anal stage who is messy, destructive, and hostile  Anal retentive personality: a person fixated in the anal stage who is neat, fussy, stingy, and stubborn Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.3 Stages of Personality Development (4 of 5) Stage 3 - Phallic stage ‒ Occurring from about 3 to 6 years of age ‒ The erogenous zone is the genitals ‒ The awakening of sexual curiosity is the conflict ▪ Castration anxiety: male fear of losing their penis ▪ Penis envy: female jealousy over not having a penis ▪ Oedipus complex: boys develop both sexual attraction to their mothers and jealousy of their fathers  Electra complex: girls fighting for affection from their fathers with their mothers becoming their rivals Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.3 Stages of Personality Development (5 of 5) Stage 4 - Latency stage Occurring from age 6 to puberty Sexual feelings of the child are repressed while the child develops in other ways  Intellectually  Physically  Socially Stage 5 - Genital stage During and after puberty Sexual feelings reawaken with appropriate targets Entry into adult social and sexual behavior Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Table 13.2: Freud’s Psychosexual Stages STAGE AGE FOCUS OF PLEASURE FOCUS OF DIFFICULTIES AT THIS STAGE AFFECT CONFLICTS LATER... Oral Birth to 1 or Oral activities (such as sucking, Weaning Ability to form interpersonal attachments/Basic 1½ years feeding, and making noises with feelings about the world/Tendency to use oral forms old the mouth) of aggression, such as sarcasm/Optimism or pessimism/Tendency to take charge or be passive Anal 1 or 1½ to 3 Bowel and bladder control Toilet training Sense of competence and control/Stubbornness or years old willingness to go along with others/Neatness or messiness/Punctuality or tardiness Phallic 3 to 6 years Genitals Sexual Development of conscience through identification old awareness with same-sex parent/Pride or humility Latency 6 years old Social skills (such as the ability School, play, Ability to get along with others to puberty to make friends) and intellectual same-sex skills; dormant period in terms friendships of psychosexual development Genital Puberty to Sexual behavior Sexual Immature love or indiscriminate hate/Uncontrollable death relationship with working or inability to work partner Note: Freud thought that the way a person finds pleasure or is prevented from satisfying urges for pleasure at each stage affects personality. Thus, like Erikson’s stage model described in Chapter Eight, see Learning Objective 8.8, Freud’s model argues that the way a person deals with particular psychological challenges has long-term effects on personality. Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.4 The Neo-Freudians (1 of 6) Learning Objective 13.4 Describe how the neo-Freudians modified Freud’s theory. Psychoanalysis: an insight therapy based on the theory of Freud, emphasizing the revealing of unconscious conflicts; Freud’s term for both the theory of personality and the therapy based on it. Neo-Freudians: followers of Freud who developed their own competing theories of psychoanalysis – Retained some of Freud’s concepts – But moved away from psychoanalysis to impact of social environment Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.4 The Neo-Freudians (2 of 6) Jung: developed a theory including both a personal and a collective unconscious – Personal unconscious: Jung’s name for the unconscious mind as described by Freud – Collective unconscious: the memories shared by all members of the human species – Archetypes: collective, universal human memories Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.4 The Neo-Freudians (3 of 6) Adler: proposed the driving force behind all human endeavors, emotions, and thoughts was the seeking of superiority – Developed birth order theory ▪ Firstborn children feel inferior to younger children who receive attention; become overachievers ▪ Middle children feel superior to dethroned older children, as well as younger children; tend to be very competitive ▪ Younger children feel inferior because they don’t have the freedom or responsibility of older children ▪ Despite some support, evidence suggests birth order has very little to no significant impact on personality development (Damian & Roberts, 2015; Rohrer et al., 2015). Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.4 The Neo-Freudians (4 of 6) Horney: developed a theory based on basic anxiety; replacing the concept of penis envy with “womb” envy – Basic anxiety: anxiety created when a child is born into the bigger and more powerful world of older children and adults – Neurotic personalities: the result of less-secure upbringings and paired with maladaptive ways of dealing with relationships Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.4 The Neo-Freudians (5 of 6) Of the three ways children deal with anxiety according to Horney, which way do you think this child might be using? Source: Clearviewimages RF/Alamy Stock Photo. Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.4 The Neo-Freudians (6 of 6) Erikson: developed a theory based on social rather than sexual relationships, covering the entire life span – Eight psychosocial stages (see Chapter Eight) Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.5 Current Thoughts on Freud and the Psychodynamic Perspective Learning Objective 13.5 Evaluate the influence of Freudian theory on modern personality theories. Current research has found support for: – Defense mechanisms – Concept of an unconscious mind that can influence conscious behavior Caveats and concerns ‒ Some Freudian concepts cannot be scientifically researched Interpretation of dreams and free association ‒ Questions about limits of applicability Theory is based primarily on his work with wealthy Austrian women Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Concept Map: Theories of Personality and Psychodynamic Perspectives (1 of 2) Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Concept Map: Theories of Personality and Psychodynamic Perspectives (2 of 2) Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.6–13.7 The Behavioral and Social Cognitive View of Personality Behaviorists and social cognitive theorists have a different view of personality Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.6 Learning Theories (1 of 4) Learning Objective 13.6 Compare and contrast the learning theories of Bandura and Rotter. Behaviorists define personality as a set of learned responses or habits ‒ Habit: well-learned response that has become automatic – Strict, traditional behaviorist views are based on works of Watson and Skinner ▪ Apply the concepts of classical and operant conditioning to explain the development of the behavior patterns referred to as personality Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.6 Learning Theories (2 of 4) Social cognitive learning theorists emphasize the influences of other people’s behavior and a person’s own expectancies on learning – Bandura and Rotter – Social cognitive view: learning theory that includes cognitive processes such as anticipating, judging, memory, and imitation of models Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.6 Learning Theories (3 of 4) Bandura’s reciprocal determinism: explanation of how the factors of environment, personal characteristics, and behavior can interact to determine future behavior – Self-efficacy: an individual’s perception of how effective a behavior will be in any particular circumstance (not the same as self-esteem) Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved.  Figure 13.2: Reciprocal Determinism In Bandura’s model of reciprocal determinism, three factors influence behavior: the environment, which consists of the physical surroundings and the potential for reinforcement; the person (personal/cognitive characteristics that have been rewarded in the past); and the behavior itself, which may or may not be reinforced at this particular time and place. Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Survey: Self-Efficacy Source: Fibel, B., & Hale, W. (1978). The generalized expectancy for success scale –A new measure. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 924–931. Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.6 Learning Theories (4 of 4) Rotter’s Social Learning Theory: based on principle of motivation – People want to seek reinforcement and avoid punishment – Locus of control: internal vs. external – Expectancy: a person’s subjective feeling that a particular behavior will lead to a reinforcing consequence. Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Table 13.3: Locus of Control Internal External Becoming a success is a Most of the time I can’t matter of hard work; luck has understand why politicians little or nothing to do with it. behave the way they do. There is a direct connection Sometimes I feel like I don’t between how hard I study have enough control over the and the grades I get. direction my life is taking. Trusting fate has never Getting a good job depends turned out as well for me as mainly on being in the right making a decision to take a place at the right time. definite course of action. Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.7 Current Thoughts on the Behavioral and Social Cognitive Learning Views Learning Objective 13.7 Evaluate the strengths and limitations of the behavioral and social cognitive learning views of personality. Behaviorism as an explanation of personality formation has limitations – Does not take mental processes into account – Doesn’t give weight to social influences on learning Social cognitive view includes social and mental processes – Tested under scientific conditions Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Concept Map: The Behavioral and Social Cognitive View of Personality Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.8–13.9 The Third Force: Humanism and Personality As a reaction against the conflict associated with psychodynamic theory, and the external focus of behaviorism, a third type of personality theory was put forth: the humanistic perspective Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.8 Carl Rogers and the Humanistic Perspective (1 of 4) Learning Objective 13.8 Describe how humanists such as Carl Rogers explain personality. Humanistic perspective: the “third force” in psychology – Based on works of Rogers and Maslow – Focuses on aspects of personality that make people uniquely human, such as subjective feelings and freedom of choice Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.8 Carl Rogers and the Humanistic Perspective (2 of 4) Self-actualizing tendency: the striving to fulfill one’s innate capacities and capabilities Self-concept: the image of oneself that develops from interactions with important, significant people in one’s life Self: an individual’s awareness of his or her own personal characteristics and level of functioning Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.8 Carl Rogers and the Humanistic Perspective (3 of 4) Real vs. ideal self ‒ Real self: one’s perception of actual characteristics, traits, and abilities that form the basis of the striving for self-actualization ‒ Ideal self: one’s perception of whom one should be or would like to be When the two parts are mismatched—the real self is distorted or ideal self is unobtainable—problems occur ‒ Initially people search others for reinforcement which impact the degree of similarity or differences between the selves. ‒ Through development people look less towards others and more at themselves Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 13.3: Real and Ideal Selves According to Rogers, the self- concept includes the real self and the ideal self. The real self is a person’s actual perception of traits and abilities, whereas the ideal self is the perception of what a person would like to be or thinks he or she should be. When the ideal self and the real self are very similar (matching), the person experiences harmony and contentment. When there is a mismatch between the two selves, the person experiences anxiety and may engage in neurotic behavior. Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.8 Carl Rogers and the Humanistic Perspective (4 of 4) Positive regard: warmth, affection, love and respect that come from significant others in one’s life ‒ Unconditional positive regard: positive regard that is given without conditions or strings attached ‒ Conditional positive regard: positive regard that is given only when person doing what providers of positive regard wish Fully functioning person: a person who is in touch with and trusting of the deepest, innermost urges and feelings Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.9 Current Thoughts on the Humanistic View of Personality (1 of 2) Learning Objective 13.9 Evaluate the strengths and limitations of the humanistic view of personality. Limitations ‒ Picture presented may be too optimistic ‒ Some aspects are difficult to test scientifically Strengths ‒ Some of the premises of positive psychology are rooted in humanistic psychology “Positive psychology” first used by Maslow in 1954 Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.9 Current Thoughts on the Humanistic View of Personality (2 of 2) These proud parents are giving their daughter unconditional positive regard. Source: Radius Images/Alamy Stock Photo. Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Concept Map: The Third Force: Humanism and Personality Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.10–13.12 Trait Theories: Who Are You? Theories discussed thus far focus on how personality develops and how personality might be changed Trait theories are more focused on describing personality and using personality to predict behavior Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.10 Allport and Cattell: Early Attempts to List and Describe Traits (1 of 4) Learning Objective 13.10 Describe early attempts to use traits to conceptualize personality. Trait theories: theories that endeavor to describe the characteristics that make up human personality in an effort to predict future behavior – Trait: a consistent, enduring way of thinking, feeling, or behaving Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.10 Allport and Cattell: Early Attempts to List and Describe Traits (2 of 4) Gordon Allport ‒ Earliest attempt to list and describe all traits found in personality ‒ Developed a list of about 200 traits; he believed these traits were wired into the nervous system Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.10 Allport and Cattell: Early Attempts to List and Describe Traits (3 of 4) Raymond Cattell defined two types of traits ‒ Surface traits: aspects of personality that can easily be seen by other people in the outward actions of a person ‒ Example: shyness ‒ Source traits: the more basic traits that underlie the surface traits, forming the core of personality ‒ Example: introversion ‒ Dimension of personality in which people tend to withdraw from excessive stimulation Using factor analysis, identified 16 source traits (later identified 7 more) with a computer method called factor analysis – Developed the The Sixteen Personality Factor (16PF) Questionnaire Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.10 Allport and Cattell: Early Attempts to List and Describe Traits (4 of 4) The personality profiles of individuals working in various occupations may be characterized by using such tools as Cattell’s 16PF self-report inventory. For example, airline pilots versus writers. Airline pilots, when compared to writers, tend to be more conscientious, relaxed, self-assured, and far less sensitive. Writers, on the other hand, were more imaginative and better able to think abstractly. Based on Cattell (1973). Source: Skycolors/Shutterstock; Jacob Lund/Shutterstock. Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.11 Modern Trait Theories: The Big Five Learning Objective 13.11 Identify the five trait dimensions of the five-factor model of personality. Five-factor model (Big Five): basic trait dimensions 1. Openness: willingness to try new things and be open to new experiences 2. Conscientiousness: the care a person gives to organization and thoughtfulness of others; dependability 3. Extraversion: one’s need to be with other people; categorized into extroverts and introverts 4. Agreeableness: the emotional style of a person that may range from easygoing, friendly, and likeable to grumpy, crabby, and unpleasant 5. Neuroticism: degree of emotional instability or stability Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Table 13.4 The Big Five Higher Scorer Characteristics Factor (OCEAN) Low Scorer Characteristics Creative, artistic, curious, Openness (O) Conventional, down-to-earth, imaginative uncreative nonconforming Organized, reliable, neat, Conscientiousness (C) Unreliable, lazy, careless, ambitious negligent, spontaneous Talkative, optimistic, sociable, Extraversion (E) Reserved, comfortable being affectionate alone, stays in the background Good-natured, trusting, helpful Agreeableness (A) Rude, uncooperative, irritable, aggressive, competitive Worrying, insecure, anxious, Neuroticism (N) Calm, secure, relaxed, stable temperamental Source: Adapted from McCrae & Blank cell Blank cell Costa (1990). Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.12 Current Thoughts on the Trait Perspective Learning Objective 13.12 Evaluate the strengths and limitations of the trait view of personality. Current thoughts Trait-situation interaction: assumption that the particular circumstances of any given situation will influence the way in which a trait is expressed Characteristic adaptations are influenced by self- concept, cultural norms, life events, social interactions and persistent, heritable traits Cross-cultural research has found support for five- factor model in all primary cultural regions Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Concept Map: Trait Theories Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.13–13.15 Personality: Genetics, Neuroscience, and Culture The study of genetics, neuroscience, and culture inform, the “nature” of personality, can help us understand the degree to which our personality is linked to our parents and close relations Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.13 The Biology of Personality: Behavioral Genetics (1 of 2) Learning Objective 13.13 Explain how twin studies and adoption studies are used in the field of behavioral genetics. Behavioral genetics: field of study devoted to discovering the genetic bases for personality characteristics. – Twin and adoption studies have found support for a genetic influence on many personality traits Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 13.4: Personalities of Identical and Fraternal Twins Identical and fraternal twins differ in the way they express the Big Five personality factors. In a 2010 study, data from 696 twin pairs suggest identical twins have a correlation of about 45 percent for self-ratings across each of the Big Five factor domains, whereas fraternal twins have a correlation of about 22 percent. These findings give support to the idea that some aspects of personality are genetically based. Source: Based On Kandler, C., Riemann, R., Spinath, F. M., & Angleitner, A. (2010). Sources of variance in personality facets: A multiple-rater twin study of self– peer, peer– peer, and self–self (dis)agreement. Journal of Personality, 78(5), 1565–1594. doi: 10.1111/j.1467- 6494.2010.00661.x Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.13 The Biology of Personality: Behavioral Genetics (2 of 2) Twin studies – James Arthur Springer and James Edward Lewis, otherwise known as the “Jim” twins, were separated shortly after birth and reunited at age thirty-nine – Exhibited many similarities in personality and personal habits Minnesota twin study showed identical twins more similar than fraternal twins ‒ Genetic nurture: the genetics of a child’s parents, even those not inherited, that impact the family and child’s environment Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.14 The Biology of Personality: Neuroscience Learning Objective 13.14 Evaluate the role of neuroscience in the investigation of biological bases of personality. Phrenology: a popular, but nonscientific, nineteenth century theory of personality traits that used the shape of the skull as the basis of determining dominant traits – Ideas related to phrenology later relegated to the realm of pseudoscience The idea that aspects of the personality are related to consistent patterns of functioning in the brain has led to the field of personality neuroscience – Uses structural and functional neuroimaging to explore the biological bases of personality – There appears to be some evidence that personality traits have biological foundations Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.15 Current Thoughts on the Heritability and Neuroscience of Personality Learning Objective 13.15 Summarize current research on the heritability and neuroscience of personality. Heritability – how much some trait within a population can be attributed to genetic influences – Studies suggest the five personality factors of the five- factor model have nearly a 50 percent rate of heritability – Variations in personality traits appear to be about 30 to 50 percent inherited Environmental influences account for about half of personality traits as well Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Geert Hofstede’s Four Dimensions of Cultural Personality Geert Hofstede’s study involved 64 countries Four basic dimensions along which cultures differ: – Individualism/collectivism – Power distance – Masculinity/femininity – Uncertainty avoidance Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Concept Map: Personality: Genetics, Neuroscience, and Culture Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.16–13.17 Assessment of Personality When measuring or assessing personality, psychologists often take an eclectic approach Assessing personality from multiple perspectives has a variety of benefits – Just as there are different theories or perspectives, different assessments have different purposes Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Table 13.5 Who Uses What Method? Type of Assessment Most Likely Used by… Interviews Psychoanalysts, humanistic therapists Projective Tests Psychoanalysts Rorschach Thematic Apperception Test Behavioral Assessments Behavioral and social cognitive Direct observation therapists Rating scales Frequency counts Personality Inventories Trait theorists Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) Neuroticism/Extraversion/Openness Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-3) Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) Keirsey Temperament Sorter II California Psychological Inventory (CPI) Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, Version II, Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF) Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.16 Interviews, Behavioral Assessments, and Personality Inventories (1 of 6) Learning Objective 13.16 Identify the advantages and disadvantages of using interviews, behavioral assessments, and personality inventories to measure personality. Behavioral Assessments: behaviorist assumes personality is merely habitually learned responses to stimuli – Direct observation: assessment in which professional observes client engaged in ordinary, day-to-day behavior in either clinical or natural setting ▪ Rating scale ▪ Frequency count Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.16 Interviews, Behavioral Assessments, and Personality Inventories (2 of 6) Interview: personality assessment in which professional asks questions of the client and allows client to answer, either in an unstructured or semistructured interview Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.16 Interviews, Behavioral Assessments, and Personality Inventories (3 of 6) Personality Inventory: paper-and-pencil or computerized test that consists of statements that require a specific, standardized response from the person taking test ‒ “Yes,” “no,” “can’t decide” ‒ “True,” “false,” “cannot say” Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.16 Interviews, Behavioral Assessments, and Personality Inventories (4 of 6) MMPI-2-RF: designed to detect abnormal behavior or thinking patterns in personality – Can be used for vocational guidance/job screening Validity scales are built into well-designed inventories to assist assessing the honesty of responses Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.16 Interviews, Behavioral Assessments, and Personality Inventories (5 of 6) Other inventories – Catell’s16PF – NEO-PI-R: based on the five-factor model – Eysenck Personality Questionnaire – Keirsey Temperament Sorter II – Myers-Briggs Type Indicator ▪Although widely used in business and vocational counseling, has significant limitations, and not the best option for employee selection and assignment situations Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.16 Interviews, Behavioral Assessments, and Personality Inventories (6 of 6) Different assessments have different advantages and disadvantages – Survey responses may involve lying or distorted truths – Bias or prejudice can influence interviews ▪Halo effect: tendency of an interviewer to allow positive characteristics of a client to influence the assessments of the client’s behavior and statements – Behavioral assessments can be subject to the observer effect and observer bias Personality inventories have some advantages over interviews and projective tests – Standardized administration and scoring – High validity and reliability Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.17 Projective Tests (1 of 2) Learning Objective 13.17 Identify the advantages and disadvantages of using projective personality tests. Projective tests: personality assessments that present ambiguous visual stimuli to the client and ask the client to respond with whatever comes to mind – Rorschach inkblot test: projective test that uses ten inkblots as the ambiguous stimuli – Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): projective test that uses twenty pictures of people in ambiguous situations as the visual stimuli Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 13.5: Rorschach Inkblot Example A facsimile of a Rorschach inkblot. A person being tested is asked to tell the interviewer what he or she sees in an inkblot similar to the one shown. Answers are neither right nor wrong but may reveal unconscious concerns. What do you see in this inkblot? Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 13.6: Thematic Apperception Test Example A sample from the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). When you look at this picture, what story does it suggest to you? Who is the person? Why is he climbing a rope? Source: Bill Aron/PhotoEdit. Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 13.17 Projective Tests (2 of 2) Problems with projective tests – Subjective: concepts and impressions that are only valid within a particular person’s perception and may be influenced by biases, prejudice, and personal experiences – With no standard grading scales, projective tests are low in reliability and validity Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Concept Map: Assessment of Personality Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Informally Assessing Personality Learning Objective 13.18 Identify ways in which you informally assess the personality of others. Methods for assessing personality have been used by psychology professionals to assist with diagnosing and treatment options They may also be used in research, employee selections or other areas common to everyday living – What assessments might be best for evaluating the behavior and attitudes you find most important? – Which seem to have the most validity and reliability? Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Copyright This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning. Dissemination or sale of any part of this work (including on the World Wide Web) will destroy the integrity of the work and is not permitted. The work and materials from it should never be made available to students except by instructors using the accompanying text in their classes. 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