PSY 2134 Theories of Personality Reviewer 1 PDF

TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 2 SIGMUND FREUD: PSYCHOANALYSIS 4 ALFRED ADLER: INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY 9 CARL GUSTAV JUNG: ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY...

TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 2 SIGMUND FREUD: PSYCHOANALYSIS 4 ALFRED ADLER: INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY 9 CARL GUSTAV JUNG: ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY 14 MELANIE KLEIN: OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY 20 JOHN BOWLBY: ATTACHMENT THEORY | MARY AINSWORTH: STRANGE SITUATION 22 KAREN HORNEY: PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEORY 26 ERICH FROMM: HUMANISTIC PSYCHOANALYSIS 30 HARRY STACK SULLIVAN: INTERPERSONAL THEORY 33 ERIK ERIKSON: POST-FREUDIAN THEORY 36 ABRAHAM MASLOW: HOLISTIC DYNAMIC THEORY | CARL ROGERS: PERSON-CENTERED THEORY 40 ROLLO MAY: EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY 46 GORDON ALLPORT: PSYCHOLOGY OF AN INDIVIDUAL 49 RAYMOND CATTELL, ROBERT McCRAE, AND PAUL COSTA: TRAIT AND FACTOR THEORIES 52 BF SKINNER: RADICAL BEHAVIORISM 59 ALBERT BANDURA: SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY 62 GEORGE KELLY: PERSONAL CONSTRUCT THEORY 66 1  PSY 2134 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Marie Joyce Victolero-Tupas, PHD, RN, RPsy INTRODUCTION ____________________________________________________________________________ PERSONALITY Persona - Theatrical mask ➔ A pattern of relatively permanent traits and unique characteristics that give both consistency and individuality to a person’s behavior ➔ An enduring and unique cluster of characteristics that may change in response to different situations. TRAITS VS. CHARACTERISTICS TRAIT CHARACTERISTICS Unique Unique characteristics of an individual Common to some group Temperament Shared by entire species Physique But the pattern is different for each Intelligence individual SCIENTIFIC THEORY ➔ A set of related assumptions that allows scientists to use logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable hypotheses THEORY ➔ Model of reality that helps us to understand, explain, predict, and control that reality 1. A set of assumptions - A single assumption can never fill all the requirements of an adequate theory 2. A set of related assumptions - Isolated assumptions can neither generate meaningful hypotheses nor possess internal consistency 3. It remains to be an assumption - The components of theory are not proven facts in the sense that their validity has been absolutely established 4. Logical Deductive Reasoning - Used by the researcher to formulate hypotheses 5. Qualifier Testable - Unless a hypothesis can be tested in some way, it is worthless SIX CRITERIA FOR A USEFUL THEORY 1. Generates Research 2. Falsifiable 3. Organizes Data 4. Guides Action 5. Internally Consistent 6. Parsimonious DIMENSIONS FOR A CONCEPT OF HUMANITY 1. Determinism vs. Free Choice 2. Pessimism vs. Optimism 3. Causality vs. Teleology 4. Conscious vs. Unconscious 5. Biological vs. Social 6. Uniqueness vs. Similarity ✅ Sigmund Freud believes in two cornerstones of motivation: sex and aggression PESSIMISM 2 PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES ★ Sigmund Freud ★ Alfred Adler ★ Carl Jung ★ Melanie Klein ★ John Bowlby ★ Mary Ainsworth ★ Karen Horney ★ Erich Fromm ★ Harry Stack Sullivan ★ Erik Erikson HUMANISTIC/EXISTENTIAL THEORIES ★ Abraham Maslow ★ Carl Rogers ★ Rollo May TRAIT AND FACTOR THEORIES ★ Raymond Cattell ★ Robert McCrae ★ Paul Costa LEARNING/COGNITIVE THEORIES ★ BF Skinner ★ Albert Bandura ★ George Kelly 3  SIGMUND FREUD: PSYCHOANALYSIS ____________________________________________________________________________ WHAT’S SO INTERESTING? The twin cornerstones of Psychoanalysis are SEX and AGGRESSION The theory was spread beyond its Viennese origins by an ardent and dedicated group of followers, many of whom romanticized Freud as nearly a mythological and lonely hero Freud’s brilliant command of language enabled him to present his theories in a stimulating and exciting manner BIOGRAPHY OF SIGMUND FREUD Born on March 6 or May 6, 1856, in Frieberg, Moravia Received a traveling grant from the University of Vienna and decided to study in Paris Jean Martin-Charcot: Hysteria Josef Breuer: Catharsis LEVELS OF THE MENTAL LIFE 1. Unconscious - Contains all those drives, urges, or instincts that are beyond our awareness but nevertheless motivate most of our words, feelings, and actions 2. Preconscious - Contains all those elements that are not conscious but can become conscious either quite readily or with some difficulty 3. Consciousness - Those mental elements in awareness at any given point in time. It is the only level of mental life directly available to us THE UNCONSCIOUS Dreams Slips of the tongue Repression Phylogenetic Endowment - consists of inherited experiences that lie beyond an individual's personal experiences. THE PRECONSCIOUS CONSCIOUS PERCEPTIONS - What a person perceives is conscious for only a transitory period; it quickly passes into the preconscious when the focus of attention shifts to another idea UNCONSCIOUS - Freud believed that ideas could slip past the vigilant censor and enter into the preconscious in a disguised form 4 THE CONSCIOUS PERCEPTUAL CONSCIOUS SYSTEM - Turned toward the outer world and acts as a medium for the perception of external stimuli MENTAL STRUCTURE - Nonthreatening ideas from the preconscious as well as the menacing but well-disguised images from the unconscious PROVINCES OF THE MIND 1. The ID (Das Es, “it,” The Pleasure Principle) Reservoir of instinct and libido Instant gratification Selfish, pleasure-seeking structure, primitive, amoral, insistent, and rash Primary-process thought Secondary-process thought 2. The EGO (Das Ich, “I,” The Reality Principle) Grows out of ID during infancy Person’s sole source of communication with the external world Decision-making, Executive branch of personality Partly conscious, partly preconscious, partly unconscious Takes into consideration the ID, the EGO, the SUPEREGO, and the External World Use of repression and other defense mechanisms against anxiety The origin of the SUPEREGO at 5 or 6 years old 3. The SUPEREGO (Uber-Ich, “Above-I,” The Moralistic/Idealistic Principle) Grows out of the EGO Has no contact with the outside world and therefore is unrealistic in its demands for perfection Learned through rules and conduct of parents Conscience and Ego-ideal THE DYNAMICS OF PERSONALITY 1. The DRIVE (Trieb) Instinct, Drive, Impulses Stimulus within the person Constant motivational force INSTINCTS - Motivating forces that drive behavior and determine its direction HOMEOSTATIC APPROACH - We are motivated to restore and maintain a condition of physiological equilibrium, or balance, to keep the body free of tension LIFE INSTINCTS - serve the purpose of survival of the individual and the species by seeking to satisfy the needs for food, water, air, and sex 5  2. The LIBIDO The form of psychic energy, manifested by the life instincts, that drives a person toward pleasurable behavior and thoughts CATHEXIS - An investment of psychic energy in an object or person 3. The DEATH INSTINCT The unconscious drive toward decay, destruction, and aggression AGGRESSIVE DRIVE - The compulsion to destroy, conquer, and kill; described as the wish to die turned against objects other than the self 4. The SEXUAL DRIVE EROGENOUS ZONES - Parts of the body capable of producing sexual pleasure PRIMARY NARCISSISM - Infants are primarily self-centered, with their libido invested almost exclusively in their own ego SECONDARY NARCISSISM - Adolescents often redirect their libido back to the ego and become preoccupied with personal appearance and other self-interests SADISM - Need for sexual pleasure by inflicting pain or humiliation on another person MASOCHISM - Experience sexual pleasure from suffering pain and humiliation inflicted either by themselves or others 5. ANXIETY Felt, affective, unpleasant state accompanied by a physical sensation that warns the person against impending danger NEUROTIC ANXIETY - Apprehension about an unknown danger MORAL ANXIETY - Conflict between the ego and the superego REALISTIC ANXIETY - Unpleasant, nonspecific feeling involving a possible danger DEFENSE MECHANISMS ➔ Strategies the ego uses to defend itself against anxiety provoked by conflicts of everyday life. Defense mechanisms involve denials or distortions of reality DEFENSE MECHANISM DEFINITION Repression Involves unconscious denial of the existence of something that causes anxiety Denial Involves denying the existence of an external threat or traumatic event Reaction Formation Involves expressing an id impulse that is the opposite of the one truly driving the person Projection Involves attributing a disturbing impulse to someone else Introjection People incorporate the positive qualities of another person into their own ego Regression Involves retreating to an earlier, less frustrating period of life and displaying the childish and dependent behaviors characteristic of that more secure time Rationalization Involves reinterpreting behavior to make it more acceptable or less threatening Displacement Involves shifting id impulses from a threatening or unavailable object to a substitute object that is available Fixation Permanent attachment of the libido to an earlier, more primitive stage of development Sublimation Involves altering or displacing id impulses by 6  diverting instinctual energy into socially acceptable behavior STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 1. ORAL PHASE ORAL-RECEPTIVE PHASE - Infants feel no ambivalence toward the pleasurable object and their needs are usually satisfied with a minimum of frustration and anxiety ORAL-SADISTIC PHASE - Infants respond to others through biting, cooing, closing their mouth, smiling, or crying 2. ANAL PHASE EARLY ANAL PERIOD - Children receive satisfaction by destroying or losing objects LATE ANAL PERIOD - Sometimes take a friendly interest in their feces, an interest that stems from the erotic pleasure of defecating ANAL CHARACTER - People who continue to receive erotic satisfaction by keeping and possessing objects and by arranging them in an excessively neat and orderly fashion ANAL TRIAD - Orderliness, stinginess, and obstinacy that typifies the anal character 3. PHALLIC PHASE 4. LATENCY PHASE Dormant Sexual Development Parental suppression School, friendships, hobbies, and other nonsexual activities Internal feelings of shame, guilt, and morality Social and cultural accomplishments 7  5. GENITAL PHASE Giving up on autoeroticism Reproduction is possible Penis envy and the Vagina as a sought-after object Genitals as the primary erogenous zone FREUD’S THERAPEUTIC TECHNIQUES Early therapeutic technique Free Association Dream Interpretation Transference Resistance DREAM ANALYSIS Manifest Content Latent Content Dreams as wish fulfillment Use of dream symbols and dreamer’s association FREUDIAN DREAM SYMBOLS The human body Parents Children Siblings Birth Death Nakedness DREAM ANALYSIS SYMBOL MEANING House with walls Men House with balcony Women Kings, Queens, highly-respected persons Parents Small animals Siblings Anything with water Birth Taking a journey Death Number 3 Entire Male genital Long objects, Anything that can penetrate Penis and cause injury Objects which enclose a space capable of Female genitals being filled by something Jewels and treasure Beloved Person Sweets Sexual Delight CRITIQUE OF FREUD Outdated Unscientific Permeated with gender bias 8 IN CONCLUSION: Generates Research (High) Determinism vs. Free Choice Falsifiable (Very Low) Pessimism vs. Optimism Organizes Data (Average) Causality vs. Teleology Guides Action (Average) Conscious vs. Unconscious Internally Consistent (Low) Biological vs. Social Parsimonious (Average) Uniqueness vs. Similarity 9  ALFRED ADLER: INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY ____________________________________________________________________________ THE LIFE OF ALFRED ADLER “Those who are familiar with my life work will clearly see the accord existing between the facts of my childhood and the views I expressed” CHILDHOOD ILLNESS Jealousy Forced himself to join games Rickets and Pneumonia Physical Limitations and sports DEATH “Your boy is lost” Decided to be a doctor Death of his brother Own near-death experience MEDIOCRITY Shoemaker Topped his class because of In school hard work ADULTHOOD Studied medicine at the University of Vienna; Went into private practice as an ophthalmologist Shifted to General Medicine; Specialized in Neurology and Psychiatry RELATIONS WITH FREUD Met once a week to discuss Psychoanalysis BUT was never a student of Freud Became president of the Vienna Psychoanalytical Society, and co-editor of the Journal Developed a negative relationship with Freud BECOMING A CELEBRITY IN AMERICA Founded the Society of Individual Psychology (1912) Organized child counseling clinics in Vienna; Introduced group therapy techniques Made several visits in the US (1926); Moved to NY in 1929 INFERIORITY FEELINGS; THE SOURCE OF HUMAN STRIVING STRIVING FOR SUPERIORITY, OR PERFECTION 10 FICTIONAL FINALISM There is an imagined or potential goal that guides behavior 1. Requires great expenditures of energy and effort 2. Manifested both by the individual and the society as a whole STYLE OF LIFE Unique pattern of characteristics, behaviors, and habits Determinism vs. Free Will CREATIVE POWER - the ability to create an appropriate style of life FOUR BASIC STYLES OF LIFE THREE CATEGORIES OF UNIVERSAL PROBLEMS 1. Problems involving our behavior towards others 2. Problems of occupation. 3. Problems of love FOUR BASIC STYLES OF LIFE 1. Dominant Type - These people are characterized early on by a tendency to be generally aggressive and dominant over others, possessing an intense energy that overwhelms anything or anybody who gets in their way. 2. Getting Type - Individuals of this type are sensitive, and while they may put a shell up around themselves to protect themselves, they end up relying on others to carry them through life’s challenges. 3. Avoiding Type - People of this type have such low energy they recoil within themselves to conserve it, avoiding life as a whole, and other people in particular. 4. Socially Useful Type - People of this type are basically healthy individuals, possessed of adequate, but not overbearing, social interest and energy. SOCIAL INTEREST Individual’s innate potential to cooperate with other people in order to achieve personal and societal goals Gemeinschaftsgefühl SAFEGUARDING TENDENCIES 1. EXCUSES - protect a weak━but artificially inflated━sense of self-worth and deceive people into believing that they are more superior than they really are 2. AGGRESSION - safeguards a person exaggerated superiority complex, that is, to protect their fragile self-esteem Depreciation - undervalue other’s achievements Accusation - blaming others for one’s failures Self-accusation - people devalue themselves in order to inflict suffering on others while protecting their own magnified feelings of self-esteem 3. WITHDRAWAL - running away from difficulties Psychologically moving backward - psychologically revert to a more secure period of life to elicit sympathy Standing still - avoid all responsibility by ensuring themselves against any threat or failure Hesitating - vacillate when faced with difficult problems; procrastination Constructing obstacles ORGAN DIALECT 11 BIRTH ORDER 12  FIRST-BORN SECOND-BORN YOUNGEST ONLY CHILD CHILD Dethronement Present No No Always the focus dethronement; dethronement; and center of even when pet of the family attention another sibling is born Focus Maintaining Competition with Need to surpass Need to be authority the older sibling other siblings center of attention Development Intellectually Language and Develops at a Mature early and mature motor remarkably manifest adult development fast-rate behaviors and High Achievers attitudes Other Good Underachievers, May retain the May have Characteristics organizers; performing below helplessness problems in Conscientious, their abilities and situation when Scrupulous dependency of they are not the about details, childhood center of Authoritarian attention and conservative THE HUMAN NATURE Influence of: Innate aspects of human nature; Childhood Experiences ★ Optimism ★ Free Will ★ Uniqueness ASSESSMENT IN ADLER’S THEORY WHAT - Verbalization of behavior WHERE - Room with comfortable chairs facing with each other HOW - Like chats between friends; including sense of humor PURPOSE - Discover the patient’s style of life and its appropriateness ASSESSMENT EARLY RECOLLECTIONS - Earliest memories, whether real events or fantasies, are assumed to reveal the primary interest of our life WHAT PEOPLE REMEMBER IN CHILDHOOD: Only images that confirm and support their current views of themselves in the world Only those memories that support their direction of striving for significance and security DREAM ANALYSIS - Involve our feelings about a current problem and what we intend to do about it Dream events and the latent meanings DREAM EVENT ADLERIAN INTERPRETATION Being paralyzed Facing insoluble problems School exams Being unprepared for situations Wearing the wrong clothes Being disturbed by one’s faults Sexual themes Retreating from sex or inadequate information about sex 13  Rage An angry or hostile style of life Death Unresolved issues about the dead person MEASURES OF SOCIAL INTEREST - Supported the use of memory and intelligence tests but criticized the use of personality tests 1. The Social Interest Scale 2. The Social Interest Index 3. Basic Adlerian Scales for Interpersonal Success RESEARCH ON ADLER’S THEORY Primarily through case studies Cannot be repeated or duplicated Not conducted in a controlled and systematic fashion No interest in applying experimental method CONTRIBUTIONS 1. One of the most enduring 2. Cognitive and Social emphases are more comparable with trends in Psychology today 3. His insights are seen in theories in Karen Horney, Gordon Allport, Abraham Maslow, and Julian Rotter 4. Aggressive drive 5. Women’s inferiority due to social conditioning and sex-role stereotyping; equality for the sexes 6. Organic inferiority, Inferiority complex, Compensation, Order of Birth 7. Forerunner of Social Psychology and Group Therapy CRITICISMS 1. Oversimplified 2. Relied heavily on common sense 3. Inconsistent and Unsystematic 4. Issue of Determinism vs. Free Choice LATER RECOGNITION AND INFLUENCE 1. Public recognition declined after his death 2. String quartet named after him 3. Individual Psychology: The Journal of Adlerian Theory, Research, and Practice 14  CARL GUSTAV JUNG: ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY ____________________________________________________________________________ FAMILY AND CHILDHOOD Born in Kesswil, Switzerland, July 26, 1875 Eight clergy uncles and a father Deaths and Funerals Neurotic parents Moody father - feelings of disappointment Dominant mother/erratic behavior - feelings of distrust Younger sister - 9 years old Spends alone-time in the attic, carving a wooden doll Religious doubts and conflicts Bizarre dreams and visions Avoided other children Isolated and introverted SCHOOL AND CAREER Disliked school, resented time in formal school Suffered fainting spells Presence was disruptive during his return Father’s statement stopped illness Studied medicine at the University of Basel Psychiatry Dreams, supernatural, and occult 1900 mental hospital in Zurich Eugene Blueler - coined “Schizophrenia” Married Emma Rauschenbach Quit his job to practice independently Rode into the countryside with his convertible YEARS WITH FREUD Prior association with Freud in 1907, he conceptualized his theories Friendship became close/Father-son relationship Voluminous correspondence Journeyed together Groomed to take over the presidency of the International Psychoanalytic Association Began to express his unique views Separated with Freud, created Analytical Psychology NEUROTIC BREAK At age 38, went to a severe neurotic episode (3 years) Resigned lectureship at Zurich Kept a revolver under his bed Violent and terrifying dreams and visions Recorded his dreams and images in paintings, drawings, and writings - kept it in 6 black books The Red Book “Liber Novus” (1913) printed in 2009 Greeted his eating utensils “good morning” etc. Worry about money - he stuffed books with money and jars and buried them in the garden Died on June 6, 1961 15  SIGMUND FREUD CARL JUNG Libido Sexual energy Broad, undifferentiated/diffuse general life energy Narrower psychic energy that fuels psychological activities PSYCHE Direction of forces that We are prisoners or victims of We are shaped by our future influence personality our past as well as our past Role of unconscious Minimize the role of the Probed more deeply into the unconscious unconscious PERSONAL UNCONSCIOUS - Reservoir of forgotten or suppressed experiences that have lost their intensity for some reason (i.e. unpleasantness, disturbing, trivial) COMPLEXES - Core or pattern of emotion, memories, perceptions, and wishes in the personal unconscious organized around a common theme; maybe conscious or unconscious COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS - The deepest level of the psyche containing the accumulation of inherited experiences of our human and pre-human ancestors ARCHETYPES - Images of universal experiences contained in the collective unconscious (primordial images) 16 ARCHETYPES Persona - public face or role Anima - Feminine aspects of the male psyche Animus - Masculine aspect of the female psyche Shadow - Dark side/contains primitive animal instinct Self - Unity, integration, and harmony of the total personality The Great Mother - The archetype of nourishment and destruction The Wise Old Man - The archetype of wisdom and meaning The Hero - A conqueror who vanquishes evil, but who has a single fatal flaw MANDALA A graphical representation of the center (the Self). It can appear in dreams and visions or it can be spontaneously created as a work of art INDIVIDUATION A condition of psychological health resulting from the integration of all conscious and unconscious facets of personality Involves becoming an individual Fulfilling one’s capacities, developing one’s self Innate and inevitable 17 ATTITUDES Introvert - Orientation toward one’s thoughts and feelings Extrovert - Orientation toward the external world and other people PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS Rational Functions (Thinking & Feeling) Conscious judgment of experiences (true or false) Evaluation based on pleasant or unpleasant (like or dislike) Non-Rational Functions (Sensing & Intuiting) Experience through the senses Experience based on a hunch (not on external stimulus) PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPES STAGES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY 18 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERSONALITY ❖ A person is continually developing, learning new skills, and moving toward self-realization THE HUMAN NATURE Personality may partly be determined by childhood experiences and by the archetypes Childhood experiences are influential but did not completely shape our personality by age 5 We are greatly affected by our experiences in middle age and by our hopes and expectations of the future There is ample room for will and spontaneity (shadow archetype) Nature-nurture Drive toward individualization and transcendence is innate Can be aided by learning and experiences We are continually motivated to strive for individualization Each individual is unique We are motivated to grow up and develop, to improve, and extend our self Progress does not stop in childhood Present generation represents a significant advancement over our primitive ancestors By placing great emphasis on materialism, reason, and empirical sciences, we are in danger of failing to appreciate the unconscious Trust our archetypes, they form our heritage ASSESSMENT IN JUNG’S THEORY Word Association Projective technique Person responds to a stimulus word with whatever comes to mind Symptom Analysis Similar to Catharsis Symptoms reported by patient Based on free associations to symptoms Dream Analysis Interpretation of dreams to uncover unconscious conflicts The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Assessment based on Jung’s attitudes and psychological types Developed by Katherine Cook Briggs and Isabel Briggs (1920s) 19 CONCEPT OF HUMANITY ★ Jung saw people as extremely complex beings who are a product of both conscious and unconscious personal experiences. However, people are also motivated by inherited remnants that spring from the collective experiences of their early ancestors. Because Jungian theory is a psychology of opposites, it receives a moderate rating on the issues of free will versus determinism, optimism versus pessimism, and causality versus teleology. It rates very high on unconscious influences, low on uniqueness, and low on social influences. 20  MELANIE KLEIN: OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY ____________________________________________________________________________ BIOGRAPHY OF MELANIE KLEIN Born in Vienna in 1882 Youngest of four children Ambition to attend medical school Married Arthur Klein at age 19 Briefly attended Vienna University Children: Melitta, Hans, and Eric Moved to Budapest Psychoanalyzed by Sandor Ferenczi Met Sigmund Freud: Development of a Child Ended her marriage and moved to Berlin Worked with Karl Abraham Conflict with Anna Freud Struggled with depression all her life OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY VS. FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYSIS 1. It places more emphasis on interpersonal relationships 2. It stresses the infant’s relationship with the mother rather than the father 3. It suggests that people are motivated primarily by human contact rather than by sexual pleasure OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY ★ Offshoot of Psychoanalytic theory that emphasizes interpersonal relations, primarily in the family and especially between mother and child THEORY AND CONCEPTS SIGMUND FREUD MELANIE KLEIN Biologically-based drives Consistent patterns of interpersonal relationship Power and control of the father Intimacy and nurturing of the mother Sexual pleasure Human contact and relatedness ❖ OBJECT - Any person, part of a person, or thing through which the aim is satisfied ❖ PHANTASY - Mental representation of a child’s first experiences ➔ Phantasies develop in relation to events, and they may not be entirely under the baby’s control ➔ Phantasies form the basis for the child’s and then the adults understanding the world ❖ POSITIONS - Ways in dealing with internal and external objects ➔ PARANOID-SCHIZOID POSITION (3-4 months) - A way of organizing feelings of being persecuted and a splitting of internal and external objects into the good and bad ➔ DEPRESSIVE POSITION (5-6 months) - The feelings of anxiety over losing a loved object coupled with a sense of guilt for wanting to destroy the object 21 PSYCHIC DEFENSE MECHANISMS 1. INTROJECTION - Klein defined introjection as the fantasy of taking into one’s own body the images that one has of an external object, especially the mother’s breast. Infants usually introject good objects as a protection against anxiety, but they also introject bad objects in order to gain control of them 2. PROJECTION - The fantasy that one’s own feelings and impulses reside within another person is called projection, Children project both good and bad images, especially onto their parents 3. SPLITTING - Infants tolerate good and bad aspects of themselves and of external objects by splitting, or mentally keeping apart, incompatible images. Splitting can be beneficial to both children and adults because it allows them to like themselves while still recognizing some unlikable qualities 4. PROJECTIVE IDENTIFICATION - Projective identification is the psychic defense mechanism whereby infants split off unacceptable parts of themselves, project them onto another object, and finally introject them in an altered form INTERNALIZATIONS ★ After introjecting external objects, infants organize them into psychologically meaningful framework, a process that Klein called internalization ➔ EGO - Internalizations are aided by the early ego’s ability to feel anxiety, to use defense mechanisms, and to form object relations in both fantasy and reality. However, a unified ego emerges only after first splitting itself into two parts: those that deal with the life instinct and those that relate to the death instinct ➔ SUPEREGO - Klein believed that the superego emerged much earlier than Freud had held. To her, the superego preceded rather than followed the Oedipus complex. Klein also saw the superego as being quite harsh and cruel SUMMARY: Life Instinct and the Death Instinct Good Breast and the Bad Breast 22  JOHN BOWLBY: ATTACHMENT THEORY | MARY AINSWORTH: STRANGE SITUATION ____________________________________________________________________________ Born February 26, 1907, in London to an upper-class English family The fourth of six children Raised by a nanny Nanny was sent away when Bowly was 4 years old Boarding school experience at 7 years old ATTACHMENT THEORY Studies with orphaned children with hospitalized infants Studies about attachment behavior of infants (Imprinting) Rather than simply being “babyish,” the child engages in natural behaviors that have ensured safety and security to young humans for millions of years STAGES OF SEPARATION ANXIETY 1. PROTEST 2. APATHY AND DESPAIR 3. EMOTIONAL DETACHMENT STEPS OF THE STRANGE SITUATION Parent and infant are introduced to the experimental room Parent and infant are alone. The parent does not participate while the infant explores A stranger enters, converses with the parent, and then approaches the infant. Parent leaves conspicuously First separation episode: Stranger’s behavior is geared to that of infant First reunion episode: Parent greets and comforts infant, then leaves again Second separation episode: Infant is alone Continuation of second separation episode: Stranger enters and gears behavior to that of infant Second reunion episode: Parent enters, greets infant, and picks up infant; stranger leaves conspicuously PHASES OF ATTACHMENT Social Gestures with Focusing on Familiar Intense Attachment Partnership Behavior Limited Selection People (3 - 6 months) and (3 years - end of (birth - 3 months) Proximity-Seeking childhood) (6 months - 3 years) Prefers Selective social Crying out 3 years old can mother’s voice responses when their visualize and and face Reaching for mother leaves understand the “Social smile” another the room, parent’s as a response person’s body demonstrating behavior and to a parts at 5 separation motives while high-pitched months anxiety he or she is human voice Narrow their Fear of away Grasping reflex responsiveness strangers Child is more Rooting and to familiar Crawling and willing to let the sucking people following a parent go, but reflexes departed there are limits parent at 8 on the amount months of physical Begin to use separation the caretaker 3-year olds can as a “secure tolerate base from which to explore” By the end of the first year, 23 the child already has a “working model” of the attachment figure 24 25 JOHN BOWLBY 1. A child has an innate (i.e., inborn) need to attach to one main attachment figure (i.e., monotropy) 2. A child should receive the continuous care of this single most important attachment figure for approximately the first two years of life 3. The long-term consequences of material deprivation might include the following: delinquency, reduced intelligence, increased aggression, depression, and affectionless psychopathy 4. Robertson and Bowlby (1952) believe that short-term separation from an attachment figure leads to distress (i.e., the PDD model) 5. The child’s attachment relationship with their primary caregiver leads to the development of an internal working model (Bowlby, 1969) Young children, who for whatever reason are deprived of the continuous care and attention of a mother or a substitute mother, are not only temporarily disturbed by such deprivation, but may in some cases suffer long-term effects which persist Bowlby, J., Ainsworth, M., Boston, M., and Rosenbluth, D. (1956) 26  KAREN HORNEY: PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEORY ____________________________________________________________________________ THE LIFE OF KAREN HORNEY “Why is everything beautiful on earth given to me, only not the highest thing, not love! I have a heart so needing of love” Horney decided that being in love eliminated, at least temporarily, her anxiety and insecurity; it offered an escape (Sayers, 1991) FAMILY LOVE LIFE CAREER Envious of her older brother Difficulties in love Success in Career Parental conflicts 14 - crush on a teacher Received her medical degree in Berlin in 1913 Felt unwanted and unloved 17 - met her first real love; Decided to undergo by parents lasted for 2 days Psychoanalysis with Karl Abraham Rebellion and Hostility Met two men, fell in love with Self-analysis applying Alfred one but married the other Adler’s ideas Gave birth to three daughters Ended her marriage after 17 1932 - 1952 Faculty of years Psychoanalytic Institutes in Chicago and NY Failed love affairs Most intense love affair with Erich Fromm ended after 20 years THE CHILDHOOD NEED FOR SAFETY AND SECURITY 27 BASIC ANXIETY: THE FOUNDATION OF ALL NEUROSIS “Insidiously increasing, all-pervading feeling of being lonely and helpless in a hostile world” (Horney, 1937) SECURING AFFECTION “If you love me, you will not hurt me” BEING SUBMISSIVE “If I give in, I will not be hurt” ATTAINING POWER “If I have power, no one will harm me” WITHDRAWING “If I withdraw, other people will not be able to hurt me” NEUROTIC NEEDS AND TRENDS ❖ NEUROTIC NEEDS - Ten irrational defenses against anxiety that become a permanent part of personality and that affect behavior 1. Affection and Approval 2. A Dominant Partner 3. Power 4. Exploitation 5. Prestige 6. Admiration 7. Achievement or Ambition 8. Self-sufficiency 9. Perfection 10. Narrow limits to life NEEDS TRENDS COMPONENTS OF THE COMPLIANT PERSONALITY 1. Affection and Approval Movement toward other people 2. A Dominant Partner COMPONENTS OF THE AGGRESSIVE PERSONALITY 1. Power Movement against other people 2. Exploitation 3. Prestige 4. Admiration 5. Achievement or Ambition COMPONENTS OF THE DETACHED PERSONALITY 1. Self-sufficiency Movement away from other people 2. Perfection 3. Narrow limits to life 28  ❖ NEUROTIC TRENDS NEUROTIC TRENDS THE COMPLIANT PERSONALITY Movement Toward people Goal To attain affection and approval of others Characteristics Attractive and Endearing Unusually considerate, appreciative, and understanding Lives up to other’s ideals and expectations Willing to assume blame Never assertive, critical, or demanding THE AGGRESSIVE PERSONALITY Movement Against people Goal To be superior and powerful Characteristics Successful in their careers Act tough and domineering; argue, criticize Achieve goal and superiority Desire is to excel and receive recognition THE DETACHED PERSONALITY Movement Away from people Goal Become self-sufficient and maintain emotional distance Characteristics Desires for privacy Avoids all constraints Avoids relationships Has a sense of superiority Denies all feelings NORMAL VS. NEUROTIC NORMAL NEUROTIC Trends All can be expressed Only one is dominant depending on the May experience conflict circumstance Self-image Based on reality Idealized self-image, based Unity and Integration on illusion Disunity and Harmony Flexible and dynamic Static, inflexible, and Serves as a goal unyielding Fixed Idea TYRANNY OF THE SHOULDS AND EXTERNALIZATIONS 29 THE FEMININE PSYCHOLOGY SIGMUND FREUD KAREN HORNEY Penis Envy Womb Envy Biological Basis Social Basis - FLIGHT FROM WOMANHOOD Oedipus Complex Neurotic Conflicts I. MOTHERHOOD OR CAREER A. Women’s role: Love, admire, and serve her man B. Horney: Women must seek their own identity II. CULTURAL INFLUENCES OF FEMININE PSYCHOLOGY A. Tradition Chinese Perspective: Yin and Yang B. Chinese word for Woman - “inside person” C. Women are expected to be submissive, obedient, respectful, chaste, and unselfish QUESTIONS ABOUT HUMAN NATURE 1. OPTIMISTIC 2. INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL FORCES 3. POTENTIAL FOR SELF-REALIZATION 4. CAPACITY TO SHAPE AND CHANGE OUR PERSONALITY 5. ADULT EXPERIENCES MAY BE AS IMPORTANT AS THOSE OF CHILDHOOD 6. ABILITY FOR SELF-ANALYSIS ASSESSMENT IN HORNEY’S THEORY FREE ASSOCIATION Not the unconscious but visible emotional reactions Not the infantile sexual fantasies but the early years of a patient's life DREAM ANALYSIS “The safest clue to understanding a dream is in the feelings of the patient as he has them in the dream” (Horney, 1987) SELF-REPORT INVENTORIES Compliant, Aggressive, and Detached Personality Type Inventory Horney-Coolidge Type Indicator RESEARCH ON HORNEY’S THEORY Used the case study method No complete records of her analytic sessions and the data she collected Rigorous and scientific in her clinical observations, formulating hypotheses, and testing them in scientific situations 30  ERICH FROMM: HUMANISTIC PSYCHOANALYSIS ____________________________________________________________________________ FAST FACTS ABOUT ERICH FROMM 1. Erich Fromm was born in Germany in 1990 2. He was the only child of orthodox Jewish parents 3. Fromm was influenced by the Bible, Freud, and Karl Marx 4. He became an analyst by being analyzed by Hanns Sachs 5. He moved to the United States and began a psychoanalytic practice in New York, where he also resumed his friendship with Karen Horney, whom he had known in Germany 6. He has a PhD in Sociology 7. He got married to Freida Reichmann 10 years older than him. But they got separated 8. Karen Horney was 15 years older than him 9. He married Henny Gurland who was 2 years younger than him, whose interest was in religion and mystical thought 10. Fromm suffered a serious heart attack and died a few days before his 80th birthday BASIC ASSUMPTIONS ❖ HUMAN DILEMMA Humans have been torn away from their prehistoric union with nature and left with no powerful instincts to adapt to a changing world EXISTENTIAL DICHOTOMIES 1. Life and Death 2. Self-realization but life is short 3. People are alone but cannot tolerate isolation ❖ HUMAN NEEDS 1. RELATEDNESS Drive for union with another person or persons Submission, power, and love 2. TRANSCENDENCE Urge to rise above passive and accidental experience Destructiveness or creativeness 3. ROOTEDNESS Need to feel at home again in the world Wholeness or fixation 4. SENSE OF IDENTITY Awareness of ourselves as a separate person Conformity or individuality 5. FRAME OF ORIENTATION Road map or consistent philosophy by which we find our way through the world Irrational goals and rational goals SUMMARY OF FROMM’S HUMAN NEEDS Negative Components Positive Components Relatedness Submission and Domination Love Transcendence Destructiveness Creativeness Rootedness Fixation Wholeness Sense of Identity Adjustment to a group Individuality 31  Frame of Orientation Irrational goals Rational goals THE BURDEN OF FREEDOM ❖ MECHANISMS OF ESCAPE AND POSITIVE FREEDOM 1. AUTHORITARIANISM - Tendency to give up one’s independence and to unite with a powerful partner 2. DESTRUCTIVENESS - An escape mechanism aimed at doing away with other people or things 3. CONFORMITY - Surrendering of one’s individuality in order to meet the wishes of others ❖ POSITIVE FREEDOM A person is free and not alone, critical and yet not filled with doubts, independent yet an integral part of mankind Full expression of both rational and emotional potentialities Love and work are the twin components of positive freedom ORIENTATIONS OF CHARACTER TYPE DESCRIPTION Receptive Passive and dependent orientation. All good things come from the outside. To be loved - not necessarily to love, similar to Freud’s oral passive, Adler’s leaning-getting, and Horney’s moving towards personality Exploitative Aggressive and self-centered. Need to take from others; world filled with things to take. They are Freud’s oral aggressive, Adler’s ruling-dominant, and Horney’s moving against type Hoarding Strives to accumulate possessions, love, and holds on. Sees the outside world as a threat. Freud would call it anal retentive type, Adler (to some extent) the avoiding type, and Horney’s moving away type Marketing Markets oneself like a commodity. Sees personality traits and skills as tradable goods Productive Fulfills inner potential to become a creative person. Transcends superficial social roles to realize potential. Similar to Maslow’s self-actualization THE PRODUCTIVE ORIENTATION 32 PERSONALITY DISORDERS People who are incapable of love and uniting with others 1. NECROPHILIA - Hates humanity - Racists, bullies, love bloodshed, destruction, terror, and torture - Strong advocates of law and order - Loves to talk about sickness, death, and burials - Behave in a destructive manner 2. MALIGNANT NARCISSISM - Individuals who are preoccupied with themselves - Hypochondriasis - Moral Hypochondriasis - Neurotic Claims 3. INCESTUOUS SYMBIOSIS - Extreme dependence on the mother or mother surrogate COMPARISON SYNDROME OF DECAY SYNDROME OF GROWTH Necrophilia Biophilia Narcissism Love Incestuous Symbiosis Positive Freedom 33  HARRY STACK SULLIVAN: INTERPERSONAL THEORY ____________________________________________________________________________ “A person can never be isolated from the complex of interpersonal relations in which the person lives and has his being” BIOGRAPHY OF HARRY STACK SULLIVAN First American to develop a comprehensive personality theory Born in a small farming community in upstate NY Only child; his mother pampered him and his father was shy and withdrawn parent He has two mother figures (grandmother and mother); later on when his grandmother died, his aunt became a mother figure Formed 1 close interpersonal relationship with a boy 5 years older Their relationship awakened in him the power of intimacy which is the ability to love another who was more or less like himself 6 years physician, no training in psychiatry Psychiatrist at St. Elizabeth’s Hospital in Washington, D.C. Worked with patients with schizophrenia; therapeutic wizard Died alone in Paris in 1949 at the age of 56 PERSONALITY AS AN ENERGY SYSTEM 1. TENSION - potentiality for action ➔ May or may not be experienced in awareness 2. ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS - actions themselves TENSIONS ❖ NEEDS - Relate either to the general well-being of a person or to specific zones, such as the mouth or genitals - Can either be physiological, such as food or oxygen or interpersonal, such as tenderness and intimacy - Conjunctive and call for specific actions to reduce them - Episodic: once they are satisfied, they temporarily lose their power but after a time, they are likely to recur - Brought on by biological imbalance between a person and the physiochemical environment GENERAL NEEDS: oxygen, food and water ZONAL NEEDS: arise from a particular area of the body TENDERNESS: most basic interpersonal need as infants develops a need to receive from its primary caretaker - Requires actions from two people (baby’s mouth and mother’s hands) - Baby’s mouth: expressed as cry, smile or coo - Mother’s hands: touching, fondling, and holding ❖ ANXIETY - The chief disruptive force in healthy interpersonal relationships in adults - Disjunctive, diffuse and vague, and calls for no consistent actions for its relief ➔ Example: If infants lack food (a need), their course of action is clear; but if they are anxious, they can do little to escape that anxiety - Anxiety may originate from the mother to the infant through empathy EFFECTS OF ANXIETY 1. Prevent people from learning from their mistakes 2. Keep people from pursuing a childish wish for security 3. Generally ensure that people will not learn from their experiences 34 ANXIETY AND FEAR 1. Anxiety stems from complex interpersonal situations and is only vaguely represented in the awareness 2. Anxiety has no positive value 3. Anxiety blocks the satisfaction of needs ANXIETY FEAR Stems from complex interpersonal More clearly discerned situations Its origins more easily pinpointed Only vaguely represented in awareness No positive value Fear can lead to profitable actions Blocks the satisfaction of needs Helps people satisfy certain needs ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS ➔ Behaviors that are aimed at satisfying needs and reducing anxiety ❖ DYNAMISM - Typical pattern of behavior. Dynamisms may relate either to specific zones of the body or to tensions 1. MALEVOLENCE - Evil and hatred; feeling of living among one’s enemies; Disjunctive dynamism 2. INTIMACY - Close personal relationship between two people of equal status; Conjunctive dynamism 3. LUST - (Own Sexual Gratification) Self-centered need that can be satisfied in the absence of an intimate interpersonal relationship; Isolating dynamism 4. SELF-SYSTEM - Patterns of behaviors that protect us against anxiety and maintain our interpersonal security; Conjunctive dynamism SECURITY OPERATIONS 1. Dissociation - impulses, desires, and needs that a person refuses to allow into awareness 2. Selective Attention - refusal to see those things a person does not wish to see PERSONIFICATIONS ➔ Sullivan believed that people acquire certain images of self and others throughout the developmental stages, and he referred to these subjective perceptions as personifications ❖ BAD-MOTHER vs. GOOD-MOTHER PERSONIFICATIONS Bad-mother: experience with the bad nipple that does not satisfy the hunger needs of the baby Good-mother: based on the tender and cooperative behaviors of the mothering one (being properly fed) ❖ ME (BAD-ME, GOOD-ME, NOT-ME) PERSONIFICATIONS Bad-me: experiences of punishment and disapproval that infants receive from the bad mother Good-me: experiences of reward and approval that diminish anxiety Not-me: experiences of sudden sever anxiety that results in dissociation or selective attention ❖ EIDETIC PERSONIFICATIONS Imaginary friends or unrealistic traits that children invent to protect their self-esteem LEVELS OF COGNITION ➔ Sullivan recognized three levels of cognition or ways of perceiving things - prototaxic, parataxic, and syntaxic 35  ❖ PROTOTAXIC - Experiences that are impossible to put into words or to communicate to others ❖ PARATAXIC - Experiences that are prelogical and nearly impossible to accurately communicate to others; erroneous assumptions about cause and effect ❖ SYNTAXIC - Experiences that can be accurately communicated to others; 12-18 MONTHS CONCEPT OF HUMANITY 1. Similarities among people are much more important than differences 2. Psychotherapist as a participant observer 3. Interpersonal relationships with the mothering one, parents, chums, lovers 4. Personal individuality is an illusion 5. Anxiety and interpersonal relations are tied together 6. Very high in social influence 36  ERIK ERIKSON: POST-FREUDIAN THEORY ____________________________________________________________________________ BIOGRAPHY Born on June 15, 1902, in Southern Germany Brought up by mother and step-father Ventured away from home as a wandering artist and poet Returned home after 7 years Taught children in Vienna Psychoanalyzed by Anna Freud Married Joan Serson Had four children: Kai, Jon, Neil, and Sue Tried to gain Danish citizenship Immigrated to the US CAREER Did not finish any college degree Did research work at Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, and Harvard Psychological Clinic Took a position at Yale Moved to the University of California Lived among the Sioux Nation and Yurok Nation Evolved a theory of personality He built his theory on foundations that Freud laid. IDENTITY CRISIS ★ Father ★ Physical features ★ Language POST-FREUDIAN THEORY ❖ THE EGO ➔ Positive force that creates identity ➔ Center of personality ➔ Partly unconscious 1. Body Ego - experience with one’s own body 2. Ego Ideal - image a person has of his own self 3. Ego Identity - image a person has of himself in the variety of roles he or she plays THE SIOUX NATION ➔ Prolonged and permissive nursing of infants Oral Personalities Generosity Suppression of Biting Fortitude and Ferocity THE YUROK NATION ➔ Strict regulations concerning the elimination of urine and feces Anal Personality Compulsive neatness, stubbornness, and miserliness PSEUDOSPECIES ➔ Man’s deep-seated conviction that some providence has made his tribe or race or caste and, yes, even his religion ‘naturally’ superior to others EPIGENETIC PRINCIPLE ➔ Each stage develops at its proper time. One stage emerges from and is built upon a previous stage, but it does not replace that earlier stage 37 STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 38 INFANCY Age: Birth to 18 months Conflict: Trust vs. Mistrust Relationship: Mother Strength: Hope Question: Can I trust the world? Key Event: Feeding EARLY CHILDHOOD Age: 18 months to 3 years Conflict: Autonomy vs. Shame Relationship: Parents Strength: Will Question: Is it ok to be me? Key Event: Toilet Training PLAY AGE Age: 3 years to 6 years Conflict: Initiative vs. Guilt Relationship: Family Strength: Purpose Question: Is it ok for me to do, move, and act? Key Event: Independence SCHOOL AGE Age: 6 years to 12 years Conflict: Industry vs. Inferiority Relationship: Neighbors, School Strength: Competence Question: Can I make it in the world of people and things? Key Event: School ADOLESCENCE Age: 12 years to 18 years Conflict: Identity vs. Role Confusion Relationship: Peers, Role Model Strength: Fidelity Question: Who am I? What can I be? Key Event: Peer relationships YOUNG ADULTHOOD Age: 19 years to 40 years Conflict: Intimacy vs. Isolation Relationship: Friends, Partners Strength: Love Question: Can I love? Key Event: Love relationships MIDDLE ADULTHOOD Age: 40 years to 65 years Conflict: Generativity vs. Stagnation Relationship: Household, Workmates Strength: Care Question: Can I make my life count? Key Event: Parenting 39 OLD AGE Age: 65 years to Death Conflict: Integrity vs. Despair Relationship: Mankind, My kind Strength: Wisdom Question: Is it ok to have been me? Key Event: Reflecting on and acceptance of one’s life METHODS OF INVESTIGATION 1. ANTHROPOLOGICAL STUDIES 2. PSYCHOHISTORY CONTRIBUTIONS 1. Child Development 2. Society and Culture 3. Psychosocial Stages of Development CRITICISMS Ambiguous terms and concepts Lack of precision Some terms are not easily measured empirically Experiences in stage may only apply to males Identity crisis may only apply to those affluent enough to explore identities 40  ABRAHAM MASLOW: HOLISTIC DYNAMIC THEORY | CARL ROGERS: PERSON-CENTERED THEORY ____________________________________________________________________________ THE LIFE OF MASLOW Oldest of seven children of a family from New York Miserable childhood from an alcoholic father Miserable family, mother was a “horrible creature” Without friends or loving parents, hostile to parents Taunted by even his parents due to his appearance Developed a huge inferiority complex while growing up Attempted to compensate through athletics Spent more time in the neighborhood library Married cousin Bertha (19) at age 20, Cornell Univ. Univ. of Wisconsin, behavioral psych, experiments Birth of his eldest, monkey studies, hierarchy of needs THE HUMAN NEEDS 1. The higher needs are weaker needs 2. The higher needs appear later in life 3. Higher needs gratification can be delayed 4. Higher needs contribute to personal growth, not survival 5. Higher needs require better conditions 6. Needs fulfillment can be scaled 41  PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS - Food, water, sleep SAFETY - Home, sweet home LOVE & BELONGING - Achieving deeper, more meaningful relationships ➔ D-LOVE - The basic need for love is a selfish concern with seeking love from others ➔ B-LOVE - The basic need to love others; possible only when we have fulfilled our D-love ESTEEM - You’ve acquired the skills that lead to honor and recognition ➔ SELF-WORTH - Respect from ourselves ➔ STATUS - Respect from others SELF-ACTUALIZATION - You are living to your highest potential; Maximum realization and fulfillment of our potentials, talent, and abilities “Musicians make music, artists must paint, poets must write if they are to be ultimately at peace with themselves. What human beings can be, they must be. They must be true to their own nature. This need we may call self-actualization. It refers to man’s desire for self-fulfillment, namely to the tendency for him to become actually in what he is potentially.” We must be free of constraints imposed by society and by ourselves We must not be distracted by lower-order needs We must be secure in our self-image and in our relationships with other people We must have a realistic knowledge of our strengths and weaknesses Cognitive Needs - the desire for knowledge and understanding coming from curiosity, need for meaning and predictability. Aesthetic Needs - the manifestation of appreciation and search for beauty Transcendence - manifested when motivated by certain experiences or values that transcends beyond the personal self. 42 SELF-ACTUALIZERS ❖ METAMOTIVATION - Behavior is not driven by needs–it is driven by self-determination “Their goal is to enrich their lives by acting to increase tension so as to experience a variety of stimulating and challenging events.” ❖ METANEEDS ★ Truth ★ Goodness ★ Beauty ★ Unity ★ Dichotomy-transcendence ★ Aliveness ★ Uniqueness ★ Perfection ★ Necessity ★ Completion ★ Justice ★ Order ★ Simplicity ★ Totality ★ Effortlessness ★ Playfulness ★ Self-sufficiency ★ Meaningfulness Self-actualizers have… An efficient perception of reality An acceptance of themselves, others, and nature A spontaneity, simplicity, and naturalness A focus on problems outside of themselves Resistance to enculturation Profound interpersonal relations with others A sense of detachment and the need for privacy A freshness of appreciation Mystical or peak experiences Social interest Creativeness THE JONAH COMPLEX “We fear our highest possibilities. We are generally afraid to become that which we can glimpse in our most perfect moments, under the most perfect conditions, under conditions of great courage. We enjoy and even thrill to the godlike possibilities we see in ourselves in such peak moments. And yet we simultaneously shiver with weakness, awe, fear before these very same possibilities. So often, we run away from the responsibilities dictated, or rather suggested by nature, by fate, even sometimes by accident, just as Jonah tried in vain to run away from his fate." VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE Humanistic and optimistic Focused on psychological health rather than illness Self-determinism - the capacity to make choices and create our lives Learning is critical in the expression of the innate needs Individual differences determine variances in the expression of the needs People are constantly moving towards becoming their best 43 44 THE LIFE OF ROGERS 4th of 6 kids from Illinois, Chicago, delimiting family Parents held extremely strict religious views Shy, solitary, dreamy, and a kid often lost in fantasy Books as comfort for loneliness, bullied by brother Had bizarre and schizoid fantasies, and interests (moths) Trip to China with open-minded students, liberated Union Theological Seminary, clergy, Columbia Univ. Clients were mostly children and delinq. adolescents Nervous breakdown, unable to help kid client Disillusioned with psychoanalysis, embraced humanism Wrote “On Becoming a Person” THE ACTUALIZING TENDENCY Formative Tendency - A tendency for all matter, both organic and inorganic to evolve from simpler to more complex forms People are motivated by innate tendency to actualize, maintain, and enhance the self The Actualizing Tendency refers to the organismic experiences of the individual Self-actualization is the tendency to actualize the self as perceived in the awareness THE FULLY FUNCTIONING PERSON Open to experience Existential living Trust feelings Creativity Fulfilled life THE SELF Self-concept: All those aspects of one’s being and one’s experiences that are perceived in awareness Ideal self: One’s view of self as one wishes to be BECOMING A PERSON BARRIERS TO PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH 1. Conditions of Worth: Experiences and behaviors are perceived as acceptable only if they meet with approval from others 2. Incongruence: A discrepancy between the person’s self-concept and aspects of his/her experience 3. Defensiveness: The protection of the self-concept against anxiety and threat by the denial or distortion of experiences inconsistent with it 4. Disorganization: Behavior is still consistent with the self-concept, but the self-concept has been broken and thus the behavior appears bizarre and confusing CLIENT-CENTERED THERAPY 1. Congruence 2. Unconditional Positive Regard 3. Empathy 45 46  ROLLO MAY: EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY ____________________________________________________________________________ Born in Ohio but grew up in Michigan Roamed around Europe as an artist Master of Divinity at Union Theological Seminary Worked two years as a pastor Ph.D. in clinical psychology from Columbia in 1949 at 40 TENETS OF EXISTENTIALISM 1. Existence takes precedence over essence 2. Existentialists oppose the artificial split between subject and object 3. People search for meaning in their lives 4. Each of us is responsible for who we are and what we will become 5. Antitheoretical position - believing that theories tend to objectify people ALIENATION 1. Separation from nature 2. Lack of meaningful interpersonal relations 3. Alienation from one’s authentic self NONBEING 1. Death 2. Addiction to alcohol and other drugs 3. Promiscuous sexual activity 4. Compulsive behaviors 47 ANXIETY People experience anxiety when they become aware that their existence or something identified with it might be destroyed. The acquisition of freedom inevitably leads to anxiety, which can be either pleasurable and constructive or painful and destructive. 1. NORMAL ANXIETY Growth Proportionate to the threat Does not involve repression 2. NEUROTIC ANXIETY Disproportionate to the threat Leads to repression and defense mechanisms GUILT Guilt arises whenever people deny their potentialities, fail to accurately perceive the needs of others, or remain blind to their dependence on the natural world. Both anxiety and guilt are ontological; that is, they refer to the nature of being and not to feelings arising from specific situations 1. UMWELT - As civilization advances technology, people become more and more removed from nature. This is somehow the same as Fromm’s notion of the human dilemma 2. MITWELT (the inability to perceive accurately the world of others) - We can see other people only through our eyes and can never perfectly judge the needs of these other people. Thus, we do violence to their true identity. We, then, feel inadequate in our relationships with other people 3. EIGENWELT - Somehow like the Jonah Complex or the fear of being or doing one’s best; is associated with our denial of our own potentialities or with our failure to fulfill them INTENTIONALITY The structure that gives meaning to experience and allows people to make decisions about the future. May believed that intentionality permits people to overcome the dichotomy between subject and object, because it enables them to see that their intentions are a function of both themselves and their environment 48 CARE, LOVE, AND WILL Care is an active process that suggests that things matter. Love means to care, to delight in the presence of another person, and to affirm that person’s value as much as one’s own. Care is also an important ingredient in will, defined as a conscious commitment to action. FORMS OF LOVE 1. SEX Natural biological function 2. EROS Psychological desire that seeks an enduring union with a loved one. It may include sex, but it is built on care and tenderness 3. PHILIA An intimate nonsexual friendship between two people, takes time to develop, and does not depend on the actions of the other person ‘ 4. AGAPE Altruistic or spiritual love that carries with it the risk of playing God. Agape is undeserved and unconditional FREEDOM Freedom comes from an understanding of our destiny. We are free when we recognize that death is a possibility at any moment and when we are willing to experience changes, even in the face of not knowing what those changes will bring 1. EXISTENTIAL FREEDOM - freedom of doing or freedom of action 2. ESSENTIAL FREEDOM - freedom of being or an inner freedom DESTINY May defined destiny as “the design of the universe speaking through the design of each one of us.” In other words, our destiny includes the limitations of our environment and our personal qualities, including our mortality, gender, and genetic predispositions. Freedom and destiny constitute a paradox, because freedom gains vitality from destiny, and destiny gains significance from freedom 49  GORDON ALLPORT: PSYCHOLOGY OF AN INDIVIDUAL ____________________________________________________________________________ Born in Indiana Undergraduate degree in philosophy and economics in Harvard Fortuitous meeting with Sigmund Freud in Vienna Studied and taught at Harvard Married Ada Gould Died of lung cancer MORPHOGENIC METHOD VS. NOMOTHETIC METHOD ❖ MORPHOGENIC METHOD Gather data on a single individual ❖ NOMOTHETIC METHOD Gather data on groups of people No theory is completely comprehensive, and psychologists should always realize that much of human nature is not included in any single theory. To Allport, a broad, comprehensive theory is preferable to a narrow, specific theory even if it does not generate as many testable hypotheses ALLPORT’S APPROACH TO PERSONALITY THEORY 1. What is personality? 2. What is the role of conscious motivation in personality theory? 3. What are the characteristics of a psychologically healthy person? WHAT IS PERSONALITY? WHAT IS THE ROLE OF CONSCIOUS MOTIVATION? ➔ Healthy individuals are generally aware of what they are doing and their reasons for doing it ➔ Self-reports should be accepted at face value ➔ The importance of unconscious processes should not be ignored WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A HEALTHY PERSON? 1. Extension of oneself - People who are matured are not self-centered but they're able to become involved in problems and activities that are not centered on themselves (e.g., an unselfish interest in word play and recreation, social interest, family, and spiritual life). 2. Warm relating of self to others - Having the capacity to love others in an intimate and compassionate manner 50  3. Emotional security or self-acceptance - Matured individuals accept themselves for what they are and they possess emotional poise 4. Realistic perception of their environment - They don’t live in a fantasy world or bend reality to fit their own wishes. They are problem-oriented rather than self-centered and they are in touch with the world as most others see it. (igo ang mga delulu) 5. Insight and humor - Matured people know themselves and therefore have no need to attribute their own mistakes and weakness to others 6. Unifying philosophy in life - Healthy people have a clear view of their purpose in life PERSONALITY “The dynamic organization within an individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic behavior and thought.” ❖ STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY Common Traits - General characteristics held in common by many people. Thus, this is the perspective of Eysenck and the authors of the Five Factor Theory. These are revealed by various personal inventories and common traits are used to provide means by which people within a given culture can be compared to one another Personal Dispositions - They have even greater importance because they permit researchers to study a single individual. Personal dispositions are generalized neuropsychic structure that is peculiar to the individual with the capacity to render many stimuli, functionally equivalent, and to initiate and guide consistent equivalent forms of adaptive and stylistic behavior 1. CARDINAL DISPOSITION - obvious and dominating that they cannot be hidden from other people 2. CENTRAL DISPOSITION - 5-10 characteristics around which their lives revolve 3. SECONDARY DISPOSITION - less reliable and less conspicuous than central traits MOTIVATIONAL AND STYLISTIC DISPOSITIONS ❖ MOTIVATIONAL DISPOSITIONS - intensely experienced dispositions that initiate action ❖ STYLISTIC DISPOSITIONS - less intensely experienced dispositions that guide action PROPRIUM ➔ Characteristics that are experienced by the person as an important aspect of himself ❖ Non-propriate behaviors: 1. Basic drives and needs 2. Tribal customs 3. Habitual behaviors A THEORY OF MOTIVATION To Allport, people not only react to their environment, but they also shape their environment and cause it to react to them. His proactive approach emphasized the idea that people often seek additional tension and that they purposefully act on their environment in a way that fosters growth toward psychological health FUNCTIONAL AUTONOMY Allport’s most distinctive and controversial concept is his theory of functional autonomy, which holds that some (but not all) human motives are functionally independent from the original motive responsible for a particular behavior. Allport recognized two levels of functional autonomy: 1. Perseverative functional autonomy - the tendency of certain basic behaviors (such as addictive behaviors) to continue in the absence of reinforcement 51  2. Propriate functional autonomy - self-sustaining motives (such as interests) that are related to the proprium THE STUDY OF AN INDIVIDUAL 1. MORPHOGENIC SCIENCE 2. DIARIES OF MARION TAYLOR 3. LETTERS FROM JENNY CONTRIBUTIONS Eclectic Morphogenic Science Psychologically healthy people Proactive position Personal Dispositions Proprium Functional Autonomy Religious orientation scale and the Study of Values 52  RAYMOND CATTELL, ROBERT McCRAE, AND PAUL COSTA: TRAIT AND FACTOR THEORIES ____________________________________________________________________________ RAYMOND CATTELL Born in Staffordshire, England At nine years old, he experienced the World War I and wrote “the brevity of life and the need to accomplish while one might” He also felt highly competitive of his brother who in his words, “could not be overcome” At 16, he enrolled in the University of London to study physics and chemistry, graduating with honors in three years, but came to realize that the physical sciences did not equip him with tools to deal with social ills; the best solution was to study the mind Against the advice of his friends, he entered graduate studies in the same university working with an eminent psychologist-statistician Charles E. Spearman who developed the technique of factor analysis After earning his PhD in 1929, he founded that there were few jobs for psychologists Due to his overworked deficient diet and being forced to live in a cold basement apartment, he developed chronic digestive disorders Eight years later, he received an opportunity to work full-time in his chosen field. He was invited by Edward L. Thorndike, an American psychologist, and spent one year in Thorndike’s lab in Columbia University, and later on, accepted professorship at Clark University in MA He remained a mathematician who shared some same research interests. He settled at the University of Illinois at age 40. At age 70, he joined the graduate faculty of the University of Hawaii He published more than 500 articles as well as 43 books For the next twenty years, my life was that of a humming dynamo━smooth but powerful. I was generally the last out of the parking lot at midnight. There is a story that I arrived at the laboratory one day to find, to my amazement, not a soul there. I phoned [home] and was told, “We are just sitting down to Thanksgiving dinner.” All days were the same to me. PERSONALITY TRAITS Traits, according to Cattell, are reaction tendencies, derived by the method of factor analysis, that are relatively permanent parts of the personality Common traits - possessed by everyone to some degree Unique traits - aspects of personality shared by few other people Cattell classified traits in several ways 53 54 ASSESSMENT IN CATTELL’S THEORY Life records (L-data) Questionnaires (Q-data) Personality tests (T-data) 16PF Test Predictable Deterministic No drive that pull us toward the future Nature and Nurture Moderate on uniqueness and universality NATURE VS. NURTURE ⅓ of our personality is genetically-based, and ⅔ is determined by social and environmental influences 55 HANS EYSENCK Born in Berlin and immigrated to London in 1934 after Adolf Hitler came to power He wanted to study physics at the University of London. However, after taking the exam, he was told that he prepared for the wrong exam, so as not to delay his education, he asked for a course he could take and he was suggested psychology. He developed several personality assessment devices: The Eysenck Personality Inventory, Eysenck Personality Profiler, Eysenck, Maudsley Medical Questionnaire, and Maudsley Personality Inventory He spent most of his career at the University of London, Maudsley Hospital, and Institute of Psychiatry His work was important in supporting the role of inheritance, in personality, and integrating the scientific study of personality and psychology Published 79 books and 1,097 journal articles Unfortunately, when he died, his wife destroyed all of his personal and professional papers Eysenck recalled, “I was told there was always psychology.” “What on Earth is that?” I inquired in my ignorance. “You’ll like it ,” they said. And so I enrolled in a subject whose scientific status was perhaps a little more questionable than my advisers realized DIMENSIONS OF PERSONALITY Superfactors - combinations of trait or factors E - Extraversion versus introversion N - Neuroticism versus emotional stability P - Psychoticism versus impulse control (superego functioning) Extraversion - Eysenck found that extraverts have a lower base of cortical arousal than introverts do Neuroticism - People high in neuroticism have greater activity in the brain areas that control the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system Psychoticism - Men generally tend to score higher on psychoticism than women, which led to Eysenck to suggest that psychoticism may be related to male hormones 56 THE ROLE OF INTELLIGENCE Eysenck noted that a person with an IQ of 120, which is high, is likely to have a more complex and multidimensional personality than a person with an IQ of 80 His research also suggested that some 80 percent of our intelligence is inherited, leaving only 20 percent as the product of social and environmental forces THE ROLE OF HEREDITY Eysenck also did not rule out environmental and situational influences on personality, such as family interactions in childhood, but he believed that their effects on personality were limited The confirmation of the same three personality dimensions in diverse cultures is further evidence for the primacy of inherited factors in the shaping of personality 57 ROBERT McCRAE AND PAUL COSTA Some recent personality researchers have expressed dissatisfaction with both theories, suggesting that Eysenck had too few dimensions (only three) and Cattell had too many factors (60) McCrae and Costa were working at the Gerontology Research Center at the National Institute of Health in Baltimore, Maryland when they embarked on a research program that identified the big five factors “A turning point in the history of personality psychology” MEASURING FIVE FACTORS Self-ratings, objective tests, and observers’ reports Developed personality test - NEO Personality Inventory Other researchers, following the lead provided by McCrae and Costa, developed adjective checklists that have proven to be quicker measures of the five factors 58 59  BF SKINNER: RADICAL BEHAVIORISM ____________________________________________________________________________ BIOGRAPHY Born on March 20, 1904 in Pennsylvania Father: Lawyer; Mother: Homemaker; Brother two years younger Wagons, seesaws, carousels, slingshots, model airplanes Younger brother died of cerebral hemorrhage Scientific reasoning - Francis Bacon B.A. in English literature in 1926 from Hamilton College Writer “Dark Year” Pavlov and Watson Psychology Graduate School at Harvard Operant behavior and Operant Conditioning Died August 18, 1990 REINFORCEMENTS AS THE BASIS OF BEHAVIOR ❖ RESPONDENT BEHAVIOR Response made to or elicited by a specific stimulus Ivan Pavlov - reinforcement and extinction ❖ OPERANT CONDITIONING The nature and frequency of operant behavior will be determined or modified by the reinforcement that follows the behavior THE SKINNER BOX It was a device or a chamber that contained a bar or a key that an animal could press in order to receive food, water, or some kind of reinforcement. The Skinner Box taught the rat how to push a lever. Positive reinforcement was experienced when a rat was rewarded with food when it pressed the lever and negative reinforcement when the rat was able to turn off electric shocks produced by the floor by pressing the lever. THE CUMULATIVE RECORDER The Cumulative Recorder documented responses based on the time.There were higher response rates that followed rewards while there were lower response rates that followed a lack of reward. Using this device, BF Skinner found that behavior did not depend on the preceding stimulus as Watson and Pavlov maintained, instead, Skinner found that behaviors were dependent on what happens after the response. Skinner called this the “Operant Behavior” THE PROJECT PIGEON BF Skinner worked in the University of Minnesota after his marriage during World War II. He received funding for a project that involved training pigeons to guide bombs since no missile guidance systems existed at that time. The pigeons were placed in the nose cone of a missile and were trained to peck at a target that would then direct the missile toward the intended target. However, the project was canceled due to the development of radar The project was not put to waste as it has also allowed BF Skinner to discover new things about “Operant Conditioning” THE BABY TENDER The most controversial work of BF Skinner was the Baby Tender. It is an enclosed crib that was created to be a place of safety for a kid whose parents probably are busy. It was designed in such a way that there is proper ventilation and the child is safe inside this baby tender. However, a publishing company reported this discovery and this creation as a “Baby In A Box” and it has received plenty of negative comments. 60 OPERANT CONDITIONING Operant conditioning is a procedure by which a change in the consequences of a response will affect the rate at which the response occurs, according to Skinner. Skinner believed that most human and animal behavior is learned through operant conditioning. To Skinner, personality is a pattern or collection of operant behaviors REINFORCEMENT AND BEHAVIOR Apply/Remove +/- Increase/Decrease Positive APPLY + ↑ Reinforcement Negative REMOVE - ↑ Reinforcement BEHAVIOR Positive APPLY - ↓ Punishment Negative REMOVE + ↓ Punishment REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES ❖ Fixed-interval Schedule The reinforcer is presented following the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed. ❖ Fixed-ratio Schedule Reinforcers are given only after the organism has made a specified number of responses ❖ Variable-interval Schedule A person might be reinforced by preparing for a pop quiz at various intervals or time frames throughout a semester ❖ Variable-ratio Schedule Average number of responses between reinforcers, but there is great variability around the average SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATIONS OR SHAPING The organism, as it goes through this process of shaping, is reinforced as its behavior comes in successive, or consecutive, stages to approximate the final behavior desired SUPERSTITIOUS BEHAVIOR Skinner believed we sometimes are reinforced by accident after we have displayed a behavior THE SELF-CONTROL OF BEHAVIOR ❖ Stimulus-Avoidance People control themselves by removing self from something that may be negative for them to do ❖ Self-administered Satiation People exert control to cure themselves of bad habits by overdoing the behavior ❖ Aversive Stimulation Technique of self-control involves unpleasant or repugnant consequences ❖ Self-reinforcement Rewarding oneself for displaying good or desirable behaviors 61 TOKEN ECONOMY A token economy is a form of behavior modification designed to increase desirable behavior and decrease undesirable behavior with the use of tokens. Individuals re