Chapter 6 Programme Design and Development PDF

CHAPTER 6 PROGRAMME DESIGN AND...

CHAPTER 6 PROGRAMME DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. LEARNING OUTCOMES After working through this chapter you should be able to explain the main elements of curriculum design in outcomes-based education and training formulate a purpose statement and learning outcomes for a course or programme in accordance with SAQA requirements classify learning outcomes in terms of a taxonomy for teaching, learning and assessment select appropriate content for a programme within own specialist field based on the variables and criteria specified in this chapter sequence content on the basis of the given guidelines and approaches discuss the requirements of training programme planning describe the factors that influence course development explain the principles and steps involved in the development of a competency-based training programme. Copyright 2015. Oxford University Press Southern Africa. EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY AN: 1161703 ; Erasmus, Loedolff, Mda, Nel.; Managing Training and Development 7e Account: s8416366.main.ehost 178  FIGURE 6.1 The systems model of training and development (See also Chapter 5, page 133) 6.1 Overview This chapter focuses on the second phase of the systems model, namely the design and development of the learning programme. ‘Good training and development design is about carefully planning the most effective, most appropriate and most engaging route to achieving desired learning and development’.3 In this chapter, we explore the requirements for the design and development of a learning programme. A learning programme is a purposeful and structured set of learning experiences designed to enable students to achieve pre-specified exit-level outcomes. It is defined as ‘a coherent combination of units of learning expressed in outcomes-based format which leads to one or more qualifications, which serve an academic and(or) vocational purpose.’4 Coetzee defines a learning programme as ‘a combination of courses, modules or units of learning, learning support materials and methodology by which students can achieve specified learning outcomes’.5 For the purpose of this chapter, we will give special attention to the requirements of outcomes-based education, the formulation and classification of learning outcomes, the selection of content, the sequencing of learning, the requirements of training programme planning and the factors that influence learning development. ‘A goal properly set is halfway reached.’ Zig Ziglar6 6.2 Outcomes-based curriculum design A curriculum is the plan for the process of teaching and learning, which follows the training needs assessment phase of the training design for a learning programme. It should be seen as simply the process of determining the learning outcomes, deciding what content should be ‘covered’, and in what sequence students will be exposed to that content. In addition to the assessment methodology, it also includes elements such as the instructional methods and media that will be used.7 In essence, the curriculum in outcomes-based education reflects the different elements of a learning programme, it indicates what the programme intends to achieve, what it entails, and what will be covered to achieve the programme outcomes.8 In essence therefore, the outcomes in outcomes-based curriculum design provide a basis for alignment of teaching, learning and assessment with such outcomes. In outcomes-based education (OBE) and training, the curriculum should adhere to specific requirements in order to fulfil the requirements of the National Qualifications Framework (NQF). The curriculum in OBE has to do with the following:9–10 determining the purpose of the learning programme or course, based on the needs assessment analysing the needs of the students, choosing and using unit standards, where applicable formulating the learning outcomes, ensuring alignment with the level descriptors of the relevant NQF level grouping learning outcomes into modules selecting the content, the subject matter that will support the achievement of the learning outcomes and sequencing the content deciding on the learning activities, the methods and media for teaching and learning planning how assessment will be done planning how the overall effectiveness of the delivery of the programme will be evaluated. Outcomes-based learning is based on the achievement of an outcome as an end result of learning EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 179  through the mastering of knowledge, skills and processes. The curriculum process therefore starts with the intended outcomes and these outcomes are then used as the point of departure for the rest of the learning programme. The purpose statement of the learning and the learning outcomes with their assessment criteria, set standards in place that become the starting point for learning programme design, development and delivery.11 6.3 Purpose statement Every course or programme must have a clear purpose. The purpose of a course or programme is a concise statement of why it exists and what students will have to achieve to satisfy the requirements of the programme. It also specifies the environment(s) in which the student will be able to undertake these activities, and state the level of expertise that the individual will have acquired.12 The purpose is normally derived from the unit standard or the description of a particular job or task or the training need determined in the training needs assessment process. The following statement is an example of a purpose statement for a course to train a garment maker:13 ‘This course will provide the student with the knowledge and skills to enable him or her to make garments from commercial patterns, body measurements and converted commercial patterns.’ The following statement is an example of a purpose statement of a course in business management: 14 ‘To provide students with the knowledge, understanding, skills and dispositions that they need to develop functional business plans for small to medium enterprises.’ 6.4 Formulating learning outcomes 6.4 Introduction.1 In essence, OBE means ‘focusing and organising everything around what is essential for all students to be able to do successfully at the end of the learning experience. This means starting with a clear picture of what is important for students to be able to do, then organising curriculum, instruction and assessment to make sure that learning ultimately happens.’15 In this section we will examine the requirements of learning outcomes as required in terms of the outcomes-based approach to education, training and development. 6.4 What is a learning outcome?.2 The NQF, through OBE, has resulted in learning, shifting from content to outcomes. An outcome is the end product of a learning process and includes social and personal skills, learning how to learn, concepts, knowledge, understanding, attitudes, values, and so on. Outcomes define the result that students must achieve as a result of the learning opportunities In terms of knowledge, skills, competences and attitudes. In the outcomes-based approach, curriculum developers work backwards from desired outcomes. Olivier16 argues that goals, objectives, courses, standards and so on, are not interchangeable terms for the word outcome. He suggests that outcomes-based learning ‘implies that students must demonstrate the achievement of an outcome, as well as the processes which have been followed’. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 180  Spady17 defines outcomes as ‘clear learning results that we want students to demonstrate at the end of significant learning experiences. They are what students can actually do with what they know and have learned – they are the tangible application of what has been learned.’ Spady 18 qualifies this further by stating that outcomes are ‘the learning results we desire from students that lead to culminating demonstrations. These results and their demonstration occur at or after the end of significant learning experiences.’ They are not considered to be the things students remember, know, believe or understand. ‘Outcomes are what the students actually can do with what they know and understand.’ 6.4 Requirements of outcomes.3 In terms of this approach, outcomes need to be defined according to the actions or demonstration processes required from the learning experiences. In defining outcomes one must use observable action verbs – like describe, explain, design or produce rather than vague terms such as know and understand. The requirements of outcomes are as follows:19–20 The verb: The verb indicates both the type of activity that will take place and the nature of the outcome. The verb needs to describe the end result. The author emphasises the fact that the verb must indicate behaviour that can be observed and that must be measurable. The following examples of acceptable verbs are provided: Develop a business plan, compile a budget, build a wall, recondition an engine. The noun/object: The noun/object indicates what is going to be achieved, clearly indicating the issue to be addressed. The modifying phrase or qualifying phrase: The modifying phrase (or qualifier) indicates the scope, dimensions and methodology involved, such as reproducing an image with a photocopier or a litho printer. An outcome embodies the following:21–22 It can be demonstrated. It is achievable and assessable. It is written in a format that is aligned with the established norms and criteria for learning outcomes. It is consistent with the requirements of the unit standard and the exit level outcomes of the programme or course. It is supported by a range of learning experiences and capabilities. It comprises procedural steps or functions, such as preparation, performance and conclusion, interacting and assessment. It is specified by clearly formulated indicators (or qualifiers) and assessment criteria. It is observable as the end product of a learning process. Learning outcomes should always begin with a phrase such as: ‘As a result of the learning, students will (be able to)’: demonstrate __________ analyse ______________ develop ______________, and so on. A further aspect that should be considered in the formulation of a learning outcome is the choice of verb used as this would impact considerably on how measureable or assessable the outcomes are.23 You will notice in Section 6.5 that there are many verbs to choose from, for example: describe, Illustrate, construct, solve, analyse, and so on. The important requirement is that the outcome should be specific and measurable. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 181  Figure 6.2 is an example of learning outcomes that fulfil these requirements. FIGURE 6.2 Example of learning outcomes 6.4 Types of outcomes.4 There are two main types of learning outcomes that have been determined by SAQA – critical outcomes and specific outcomes. These outcomes are discussed in the next sections. 6.4.4 Critical outcomes.1 Critical outcomes are macro or overarching outcomes (also sometimes referred to as cross-field outcomes) that indicate the intended results of education and training in a broad and macro sense and that are linked to national goals and aims that must be achieved. They are generic and are linked to all learning areas. Critical outcomes are deemed critical for the development of the capacity of lifelong learning and are intended to direct the thinking of policy makers, curriculum designers, facilitators of learning as well as the students themselves.26 The competencies that are described by the critical cross-field outcomes are the following: Communication skills enable the students to communicate orally and in writing using visual, mathematical and language skills. Problem-solving skills enable students to identify and solve problems by using critical and creative thinking skills. Interpersonal skills enable students to work effectively with others as a member of a team, group, EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 182  organisation or community. Organisational skills enable students to organise themselves and manage their activities responsibly and effectively. Research skills enable students to collect, analyse, organise and critically evaluate information. Technological literacy skills enable students to use science and technology effectively and critically, showing responsibility towards the environment and health of others. Systems thinking skills enable students to understand the world as a set of related systems rather than as a set of isolated contexts. 6.4.4 Specific outcomes.2 ‘Specific outcomes express the results of narrowly defined aspects of learning.’27 Such outcomes could typically be the outcomes required for a particular course or programme or unit standard, drawing on specific knowledge and skills, displayed in a particular context. Specific outcomes express the results of narrowly defined aspects of learning required for that particular course or programme. These are the outcomes that are unique to that programme – they describe the significant knowledge, skills, attitudes and values that students should be able to demonstrate at the end of learning. In general, the students will be required to demonstrate these outcomes in some specific context, such as the context of a specific task required in the job situation. Specific outcomes: imply competence which students should be able to demonstrate in a particular area of learning form the basis for assessing the progress of students and therefore indirectly also the effectiveness of learning processes and learning programmes form the basis for selecting subject matter required to achieve the outcomes form the basis for selecting cognitive learning items and technical skills that will enable the students to achieve the outcomes together with assessment criteria linked to credits and qualifications. REFLECTION Now that you have studied the section on learning outcomes, formulate a learning outcome for a subject of your choice. Measure it against the requirements of good learning outcomes. Make sure the the outcome has a verb, a noun and a qualifier? 6.5 Taxonomies of learning 6.5 Introduction.1 As one starts writing outcomes, it soon becomes apparent that not all outcomes are equal – ‘some will refer to simple ideas, others to complex ideas; some will require low levels of skills, others higher levels, some will require small changes in attitudes and values, others large changes.’28 The author further suggests ‘we need a common language for describing the type of things we want students to learn. The search for the common language has led to the creation of taxonomies of learning, a way of classifying learning outcomes.’ Two such taxonomies are dealt with in the sections that follow: Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives and Anderson-Krathwohl’s taxonomy. 6.5 Bloom’s taxonomy.2 Benjamin Bloom and his colleagues developed the so-called Bloom’s taxonomy, which is a hierarchical classification of learning objectives (or outcomes) into three areas of learning: EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 183  cognitive, affective, and psychomotor areas. This taxonomy has been used by many educators and trainers as a basis for constructing and planning new programmes and developing learning outcomes. It is an extremely useful tool, because it enables trainers to decide what level of skills they would like their students to attain, bearing in mind the relevant NQF level.29–31 6.5.2 The cognitive area.1 Here the emphasis falls on learning relating to recalling or recognising facts and developing cognitive abilities and skills. Most of the research on curriculum development has been done in this area, and the clearest definition of outcomes can be found here. The planned behaviour of students is classified in terms of outcomes that follow hierarchically on each other, ranging from the simple to the complex. The knowledge level deals with the student’s ability to retrieve, recall, or recognise knowledge from memory. The aspect of being able to remember is emphasised in this category, while in the categories that follow the process of remembering merely forms a part of complex processes such as judgment and organisation. Outcomes written at this level will typically use verbs such as name, list, define, label, select, state, describe and identify. The comprehension level has to do with a student’s ability to understand (to grasp) the meaning of learning material. This entails more than merely recalling learning material word for word. This level of learning occurs when the student cannot only recall knowledge, but the student can also explain it in context to someone else. Outcomes written at this level will typically use verbs such as describe, convert, illustrate, distinguish, interpret, discuss, give (examples) and summarise. The application level refers to a student’s ability to apply (to use) material already learned to new, concrete situations. Merely applying central concepts is not the only important facet – the student must also be able to deal with the total situation in a correct manner. This may include the application of rules, methods, laws and theories. Outcomes written at this level will typically use verbs such as calculate, demonstrate, construct, solve, show and apply. The analysis level requires the ability to break down material or concepts into parts and determining how the parts relate or interrelate to one another or to an overall structure or purpose. This could imply the identification of parts, the analysis of the relationship between parts and recognise the principles according to which the elements are organised. Outcomes written at this level will typically use verbs such as analyse, categorise, classify, differentiate, relate, compare and discriminate. The synthesis level entails putting together parts and elements to form a new whole. The student must therefore produce unique communication. To do this, the student must, on the basis of his or her analysis of central concepts and theories, be able to identify the relationships between concepts and theories, and integrate them into a new and logical whole. The student can act creatively in this regard because, unlike the other levels of classification (comprehension, application and analysis), there are no binding factors. Outcomes written at this level will typically use verbs such as plan, adapt, combine, create, compile, compose, construct, model, revise, design, develop, formulate and organise. The evaluation level requires students to make judgements regarding the learning material, based on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing. A student displays this ability if he or she is able to indicate, among others, the logical consequence of learning material, evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of a theory and determine to what extent a theory meets the requirements for a sound theory. Outcomes written at this level will typically use verbs such as assess, judge, choose, criticise, rate, argue, justify, evaluate, decide, recommend and conclude. 6.5.2 The affective area.2 This area emphasises the student’s attitudes, values, feelings and emotions. As is the case with the cognitive area, the affective area is also classified into a hierarchy of objectives ranging from high to EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 184  low. This hierarchy is as follows: At the first and lowest level, the student passively receives a stimulus. At best the stimulus develops to the point where the student pays minimal attention to it. At the second level, the student not only reacts to the stimulus but also enjoys reacting to it. At the third level, the student attaches a particular value to the activity or phenomenon, causing him or her to react voluntarily to increase participation in the activity. At the fourth level, the student conceptualises each value to which he or she responded by forming characteristics or evaluating the matter. At the last and highest level in this classification, the student organises his or her values into a system which is a characterisation of the student. 6.5.2 The psychomotor area.3 This area deals mainly with physical skills. Psychomotor objectives entail the manipulation of objects, or are concerned with activities that require neuro-muscular coordination. Psychomotor objectives are used mainly at career-orientated industrial training centres, for example, centres where artisans are trained. 6.5 Anderson-Krathwohl’s taxonomy.3 A more recent taxonomy known as the taxonomy for teaching, learning and assessing has been developed.32 The development of the revised taxonomy was driven by four questions that the authors see as fundamental to teaching:33 What important things should students learn? How can instruction be planned and delivered so that high levels of learning are achieved by students? What assessment instruments and procedures will provide accurate information about how well students are learning? How can trainers ensure that outcomes, instruction and assessment are aligned with one another? Since these questions place the emphasis on issues that are fundamental to teaching, it is not surprising that they draw our attention to the focal point of OBE – the alignment of outcomes, teaching strategies and assessment. The revised taxonomy can help trainers to achieve this alignment:34 The revised taxonomy still has many of the features of Bloom’s taxonomy but there are several differences. The first difference comes from recognising that ‘just as there are different cognitive processes, there are different types of knowledge’.35 If we want to understand how students actually learn, we have to consider both the type of knowledge they are attempting to acquire and the cognitive processes that need to be applied to that knowledge. The taxonomy could be structured as a grid rather than a list, as shown in Table 6.1. TABLE 6.1 Cognitive processes and types of knowledge EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 185  Source: Anderson and Krathwoh36 Three important differences between Bloom’s taxonomy and Anderson and Krathwohl’s new taxonomy have been identified: ‘First, the ‘labels’ are now verbs (rather than nouns) to emphasise that the cognitive processes are ‘thinking actions’. Second, the cognitive process of ‘synthesis’ has been replaced with ‘create’. Its new position at the extreme right of the grid emphasises that it is the most complex of the cognitive processes. (It emphasises that you cannot create something new unless you can make evaluative decisions about alternatives.) Finally, the lowest level of cognitive process is referred to as ‘remember’ (rather than ‘knowledge’) and the ‘knowledge’ category that was the first level of Bloom’s taxonomy is now used as the second dimension of the taxonomy grid.37 The key terms used to define the cognitive process dimension of this grid are defined in Table 6.2 and the examples of ‘action verbs’ suggest some ways in which these cognitive processes can be indicated in outcome statements. Anderson and Krathwohl38 identified four distinct types of knowledge (factual, conceptual, procedural and meta-cognitive). Each category of knowledge is defined and subdivided in Table 6.3. Killen39 further suggests that this taxonomy should not be interpreted too rigidly. ‘It is a guide for thinking about learning, not a set of absolute truths.’ There is some overlap between categories and subcategories and there may be different opinions about the placement of some examples. However, the taxonomy may be a very useful guide to thinking about outcomes, teaching and assessment. TABLE 6.2 Grid of cognitive processes and action verbs for outcome statements COGNITIVE PROCESS WHAT STUDENTS ARE EXAMPLES OF ACTION VERBS REQUIRED TO DO Remember Retrieve relevant knowledge from Recognise, recall, define, describe, long-term memory identify, list, match, select, state and reproduce Understand Construct meaning from information Paraphrase, interpret, give examples, and concepts classify, summarise, infer, compare, discuss, explain, rewrite, extrapolate and translate Apply Carry out a procedure or use a Change, demonstrate, predict, relate, technique in a given situation. This show how, solve, determine and might involve routinely applying employ EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 186  procedures or determining which procedure to use in a particular situation Analyse Separate information into parts and Analyse, compare, contrast, organise, determine how the parts relate to one distinguish, examine, illustrate, point another and how they relate to an out, relate, explain, differentiate, overall purpose or structure organise and attribute Evaluate Make judgements based on criteria Comment on, check, criticise, judge, and/or standards critique, discriminate, justify, interpret and support Create Put elements together to form a Combine, design, plan, rearrange, coherent or functional whole, or reconstruct, rewrite, generate and reorganise elements into a new produce pattern or structure through generating, planning or producing Source: Anderson and Krathwohl40 TABLE 6.3 Types of knowledge and examples KNOWLEDGE TYPE SUBTYPE EXAMPLE Factual knowledge (Basic Knowledge of terminology Symbols for chemical elements; knowledge required to work in a names of parts of machine discipline) Knowledge of specific details Sequence of elements in periodic table; dates of events in history Conceptual knowledge Knowledge of classifications and Types of Western music; forms of (Knowledge of how things are categories business ownership related) Knowledge of principles and Newton’s laws of motion; Pythagoras’ generalisations theorem Knowledge of theories, models and Theory of evolution; structures information-processing model of cognition Procedural knowledge Knowledge of subject-specific skills Skills used in drawing a house plan; (Knowledge of how to do and algorithms algorithm for multiplying fractions; things) skills used to strip or assemble an electric motor Knowledge of subject-specific Interviewing technique; scientific techniques and methods method of inquiry Knowledge of criteria for determining Criteria to determine when to use the EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 187  when to use particular procedures ‘guess and check’ procedure for problem solving; criteria to judge the feasibility of using cooperative learning as a teaching strategy Meta-cognitive knowledge Strategic knowledge Knowledge of flowcharting as a (Knowledge of cognition in means of showing relationships general, and awareness of among elements of a process one’s own cognition and how to control one’s thinking Knowledge about cognitive tasks Knowledge of the cognitive demands processes) of particular tasks; knowledge of the ways in which understanding is typically tested by teachers or trainers Self-knowledge Awareness of one’s own knowledge level; knowledge of one’s personal strengths and weaknesses in learning tasks Source: Anderson and Krathwohl (as reflected in Killen)41 Wilson provides a visual illustration of the changes to Bloom’s taxonomy which is shown in Figure 6.3. FIGURE 6.3 Changes to Bloom’s taxonomy 6.5 Applying the taxonomy EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 188.4 There are three steps in using the taxonomy table in curriculum design and implementation to align outcomes, instructional procedures, and assessment for a module, unit of work or lesson:44 Step 1: Each outcome is ‘mapped’ or ‘positioned’ onto the taxonomy table (Table 6.1) by answering two questions: ‘What type of cognitive processes does the outcome require?’ and ‘What type of knowledge will students be dealing with when demonstrating the outcome?’ For example, a low-level outcome such as ‘Students will be able to name the stages of the training cycle’ requires students to remember factual information, so it is mapped into the top left-hand cell of the grid. A higher-level outcome, such as ‘Students will be able to compare the education and training systems of South Africa and Zimbabwe’ requires students to analyse conceptual information, so it is mapped into the cell at the intersection of the ‘analyse’ column and the ‘conceptual knowledge’ row of the Table. Step 2: Once the outcome has been analysed and mapped onto the taxonomy table, the instructional procedures that the lecturer or trainer plans to use can be selected. If the outcome requires recall of factual information (as in the first example in Step 1) then a teaching procedure such as direct instruction (perhaps involving drill and practice) might be appropriate. In the case of the second outcome, the teaching strategy must enable students to analyse conceptual information – information that has to be understood (not just remembered). In this case a strategy such as cooperative learning or a student research project would be more appropriate. Step 3: The next step is to decide on an appropriate assessment procedure. For the first example outcome above, the assessment could be as simple as ‘List the stages of the training cycle’. For the second sample outcome, several approaches to assessment are possible. A question such as, ‘List three differences between the education and training systems of South Africa and Zimbabwe’ would require students to make a very simple comparison of the two systems (a list of differences could be memorised and recalled) so such a question would not be appropriate. A question such as ‘Describe how the structure and functions of the South African and Zimbabwean education and training systems are similar but different’ would require students to go beyond recall of factual information (the list of differences) and demonstrate an understanding of various concepts. Students with a high level of understanding would also be able to describe the interactions between the structure and functions of the two systems. The last question would be more appropriate to assess the outcome. A more open-ended question such as ‘Explain the main implications of the differences between the South African and Zimbabwean education and training systems’ would require students to analyse the differences in more detail and make conclusions about the implications of those differences. Such a question may go beyond the requirements of the outcome (depending on how the outcome writer interprets the word compare). The explanation above makes one realise that thinking about how to match the assessment to the outcome compels one to clarify exactly what the outcome means. The above process should help trainers and lecturers to determine: ‘(1) whether or not the outcome is appropriate, (2) whether or not the chosen teaching strategies can possibly enable students to achieve the outcome, and (3) whether or not the assessment procedures will provide reliable evidence so that valid inferences can be drawn about students’ achievement of the outcome.’45 6.6 Selecting and sequencing content 6.6 Introduction.1 Once the learning outcomes have been determined, the rest of the design can follow. ‘Whether job-specific or broader in nature, training and development are designed according to the assessed EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 189  needs.’46 The next step in programme design is to select and sequence content. Nadler47 refers to this phase of instructional design as the ‘curriculum building’ phase. In this part of the design one decides ‘what is to be learned and the sequence of the learning’. It involves the examination of each learning outcome to determine the specific facts, concepts, principles, skills and activities involved in each learning task. This, therefore, implies identifying all the items of knowledge, skills and processes, and so on that are needed to achieve the outcomes and the arrangement of the teaching points and learning activities in the optimal learning sequence. ‘The outcomes-based learning approach starts with the intended outcomes, from which are derived knowledge, skills and processes as enabling outcomes in order to achieve the outcomes.’48 The selection of content is therefore driven by the learning outcomes. 6.6 What is content?.2 Content refers to the underlying knowledge, skills, attitudes and values that are required for students to master the learning outcomes. The term also refers to the subject matter, teaching points and the learning activities that will enable the student to perform the various tasks and duties associated with a particular job. It therefore includes items of knowledge (which in turn consist of facts, concepts, principles, ideas, and so on) and skills but, more importantly, also the activities, which must be integrated with the content. These activities could be a training exercise, explanations, reading assignments, case studies, web-based activities, role plays, simulations, group projects, etc. Thiagarajan49 argues that content without activities produces ‘inert knowledge’. ‘The students store facts and information in a passive manner and regurgitate it mindlessly. They lack the ability to apply it to the challenges in their workplace and in the real world’.50 This is the real challenge in any teaching and learning situation. We do not want students just to memorise and regurgitate knowledge. We want students to apply it to real-life contexts and to use the knowledge to analyse, to create and to solve problems. 6.6 Factors to consider in determining content.3 A number of factors influence the determining of content for a curriculum and have an impact on the way the information is presented:51 Subject-matter characteristics: Each subject has its unique characteristics that affect the way in which it is analysed and organised for learning purposes. The way in which a subject such as Mathematics is analysed will differ vastly from a subject such as Social Sciences. The same will apply to areas such as sales training, human relations and management training. Each subject will have its own requirements that have to be considered. This task therefore requires the inputs and assistance of subject matter experts who can select the content in the best way for optimal learning and teaching. The student: Each student comes to the training situation with his or her own unique background and experience – in other words, his or her own ‘entry behaviour’. Obviously the designer cannot know the prior learning experiences of every student but this aspect, as well as other aspects of the student such as culture, language ability, ability to learn, motivation to learn and learning styles, cannot be ignored.52 The trainer or the facilitator: The way the learning material is presented also plays a role in the selection of content. The ability of the trainer/facilitator and whether or not he or she is an expert on the subject matter will have an influence on the selection of content. Similarly, if the learning material is presented by other means, for example through competency-based training and computer-based learning, it will have an impact on the choice of content for a course or unit of instruction. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 190  6.6 Sources of content.4 There are two main sources of content, namely job data and documents, of which the former is always the primary source.53 Job data include job analysis reports, performance work cards, job aids and performance agreements. Documents include technical and operator manuals, standard operating procedures, standard reference books, textbooks, and organisation and function manuals. Content may also be found in other forms, for example, video, audio, graphics, articles, tables, tests and online databases.54 It is useful to use the job as a point of departure because the job description consists primarily of a series of job outcomes; that is, what employees need to know and be able to do in their jobs.55 The analysis of job data entails the detailed analysis of the tasks associated with the job in order to obtain the facts, principles, concepts and skill requirements involved in the successful performance of the job. There are two main criteria which must be satisfied in the selection of content from the job analysis. First, it must be directly related to the job requirement and the performance requirements identified by the task analysis. Second, the content must be essential to the development of the required performance. In using documents for the selection of content, certain criteria must also be satisfied: they must be authoritative, they must be consistent with the position and approach of the enterprise and they must not conflict with established and approved policies and procedures.56 6.6 Types of content.5 Content is generally organised into a number of categories. This allows the instructional designer to have a basis for deciding what to include and what to omit. The generic categories are as follows:57 Essential: This category contains those aspects that are absolutely necessary for the curriculum if the requirements of the objectives and outcomes previously specified are to be met. Helpful: This refers to content which ‘supplements’ the essential and can be included if conditions and time permit. Such content can add some value to the programme, for example, the inclusion of examples and case studies. Peripheral: The difference between helpful and peripheral is difficult to establish but in essence this category contains those items which, although they are not considered essential, may well have a bearing on how well the person performs the task. These are items of content which are not essential or helpful but nice to have, and which could improve the performance level of the student. Unrelated: Unrelated items are normally not included in the curriculum since they have no relevance to the learning outcomes. However, there may be situations that require the inclusion of certain aspects on the insistence of higher authority ‘for political reasons’. One of the main problems experienced by instructional designers is to decide what knowledge items should be included in order to ensure the effective performance of a task. Table 6.4 summarises the categories of content. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 191  TABLE 6.4 Categories of content ESSENTIAL CONTENT HELPFUL CONTENT PERIPHERAL CONTENT Must know Should know Could know What the student must be able Information that supplements the Information that is not essential or to do after the learning essential information and can be helpful, but may have bearing on how included if time and other constraints well a student can master the permit learning outcomes David Simmonds58 refers to the so-called filter of relevance, which is illustrated in Figure 6.4 and which helps one to appreciate the need to differentiate between the three categories of content. FIGURE 6.4 The filter of relevance There are a number of criteria that should be used to select learning content for instructional purposes:60–61 Applicability (or relevance): The content should be pertinent, applicable and appropriate to the training needs and the interests of the student. Validity and significance: The content should contribute to the development of the skills that the students have to acquire as a result of training. Learnability: The content should coincide with the student’s intellectual abilities and level of development. Durability: The content should be changed and adapted on a regular basis to cater for change. Viability: The content should be selected and incorporated because it has a major role to play in the development of the student. Usefulness: The content must be of value to the student. Relationship between facts and principal ideas: All the minor pieces of information must be linked and connected to the main idea. The criteria mentioned in the list should enable the training and development practitioner to identify all the content (knowledge, skills and attitudes) that should be included in a particular course or module. 6.6 Steps in the selection of content EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 192  The.6 normal practice is that a rough draft of the outline of the course is prepared indicating the major subject areas to be included that are sometimes already indicated in the various modules of the course. Each subject area is then expanded into topics until detailed statements of content can be written down. A ‘mind map’ for each subject of the course is recommended and then, for each subject, the topics to be covered within that subject.62 This approach is illustrated in Figure 6.5. FIGURE 6.5 Steps used for selecting content A useful list of steps to be followed in selecting content is as follows:64 Examine each outcome on the basis of the guidelines for identifying knowledge requirements and develop separate topical outlines for each task. This step requires that every item of knowledge (fact, concept and principle), attitude and skill should be included. The topical outline should then be submitted to experts in the subject to be checked for validity and accuracy. Revise the outline on the basis of feedback from the experts. A detailed content outline for each topic is then prepared and teaching points are formulated in declarative statements indicating references. Unnecessary duplication within the detailed teaching points is then eliminated. The refined content outline is then compared with the outcomes and final adjustments are made. Experts in the subject matter are then required to review the detailed content outline. Final revision takes place on the basis of feedback from the experts. Beevers and Rea65 suggest another way in which to select content: By starting at the highest level (topic or job title) ask the question: What does someone need to know/do to understand/be capable in this area? Then for each answer to the above question, ask again: What does someone need to know/do to understand/be capable in this area, and so on. As a further test, it may be prudent to verify one’s decisions once the selection of content has been completed. The designer should test each content item by asking the following questions: If the student has learned this material, will he or she meet the learning outcomes? Will it satisfy the need? Will it ensure the required performance? Will it solve the identified problem of the enterprise? EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 193  6.6 The outcomes-based approach for determining content.7 Olivier66 strongly advocates the use of the curriculum development process outlined in Section 6.2 as a basis for determining the content of a learning programme. He argues that with this approach one starts with the intended outcome. It then requires designing back from where you want to end or what you want achieve. An example of this approach is illustrated in Figure 6.6. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 194  FIGURE 6.6 Example of the outcomes-based approach for determining content 6.6 Sequencing content.8 Introduction 6.6.8.1 According to Simmonds’68 ‘Learning is not a single activity but a prolonged series of iterative interactions including periods of reflection and change’. To be most accessible, learning content and material should be delivered in a logical flow, allowing students to build up through simple to more complex areas of learning.69 ‘You can’t teach your trainees everything they need to know at once. Nor can you practise every skill simultaneously. Somehow you have to organise what you’re going to do and when’.70 This implies proper sequencing of the content and learning material. ‘Sequencing is the process by which the content and learning experiences are placed in the configuration that will produce the most learning in the shortest possible time.’71 Proper sequencing of learning outcomes and teaching points is essential, as it can have a significant impact on the efficiency and effectiveness of learning. Unfortunately, this aspect is often neglected in the design and development of instructional systems and programmes. It is therefore necessary to examine some aspects of sequencing such as its benefits, approaches to sequencing as well as guidelines to the meaningful sequencing of learning material. 6.6.8 Benefits of sequencing.2 Proper sequencing of learning experiences has several benefits from a learning point of view. 72 It helps the student to make the transition from one skill or knowledge element to another, and it ensures that prerequisite and supporting skills and knowledge are acquired before new skills and knowledge are introduced. It also reduces training time, and it prevents student confusion and failure. 6.6.8 Approaches to sequencing.3 A number of approaches can be used in sequencing learning outcomes and learning experiences:73– 75 Chronological sequencing: The content is arranged by time sequence, for example by dates in history, from past to present. Whole-to-part sequencing: Students are first exposed to the whole or complete model, picture or procedure and then instructed around parts of the whole. Part-to-whole sequencing: Students are introduced to each part of a larger object, process or procedure, and then conceptualise the entire object or procedure by the end of the learning experience. Already known-to-yet unknown sequencing: With this approach the sequence begins with material that is familiar to the student and then proceeds to new material they do not know. Unknown-to-known sequencing: With this approach the students are ‘deliberately disorientated at the outset of instruction’ to make students realise how little they know about a subject or the performance of a particular task which is intended to motivate them for subsequent learning.76 Step-by-step sequencing: The students learn by analysing how the task is performed and then the instruction is sequenced around each step of the process. General-to-specific sequencing: The students are first given an overview of the topic and then introduced to the content that eventually leads to the specific. Specific to the general: This approach leads the student through a series of specific learning experiences to the end result – the general. Concrete to the abstract: The student starts with learning experiences that are ‘simple, solid and EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 195  observable and beyond dispute’ and is then gradually exposed to more complex and abstract concepts. 6.6.8 Guidelines for sequencing.4 The following general guidelines could be used for the sequencing of learning content:77 Build interest and introduce new content before delving more deeply. Place easy activities before demanding activities. Introduce broad concepts and technical terms early in the sequence. Place application of concepts and principles close to the point of their initial introduction. Place previously learned knowledge and skills in the sequence just prior to where they have to be combined with new knowledge and skills. Maintain a good mix of activities. Group together concepts and skills that build on each other. Provide subskills before practicing complex skills. Sequence the learning outcomes into closely-related, self-contained groups. Place complex or cumulative skills late in the sequence. Close training sequences with discussion of ‘so what’ and ‘now what’. 6.6.8 Levels of sequencing.5 Four levels of sequence have been identified: the course and the curriculum, the topic, the lesson, and the lesson component:78 Course and curriculum: Course and curriculum sequences are normally presented in a scope and sequence chart, which indicates the topics to be studied in a total course and the recommended learning sequence. Topic: A topic or subject can and often do have several parts and also several different purposes which should be in a logical learning sequence. Lesson: A lesson can have several parts which should be in a logical learning sequence. Lesson component. 6.6.8 The advance organiser.6 Advance organisers are a form of pre-instructional strategy, a technique for cognitively preparing students for the instruction that is to follow. The technique was originally developed by Ausubel.79 He used written materials that presented general, abstract ideas to prepare students for learning more detailed and specific written materials. The advance organiser directs students’ attention to the important ideas in the following material and highlights relationships among those ideas. In general, advance organisers work best when students have limited prior knowledge of the new material that is to be learned. Advance organisers are similar to overviews but with one very important difference. An overview will provide a summary of the main ideas to be learned and will be written at the same level of abstraction as this information. An advance organiser will be written at a higher level of abstraction than the material to be learned as this provides a framework or scaffold for learning, not just a summary of this material. What is important, however, is that this advance organiser must mean something to the student and must therefore take account of the student’s existing knowledge. Advance organisers create a broad structure in the mind of the student, into which later detail can be fitted. They can be written for whole courses, parts of courses and for individual lessons. In addition to an advance organiser, the use of a course map, which provides an overview of the various topics and modules of the course, including alternative routes through the course, is EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 196  recommended80 (see Figure 6.7). Advance organisers can include outlines, text, diagrams and graphs that provide the student with a structure for information that will be provided later in the learning process.81 FIGURE 6.7 An example of a course map 6.6.8 Concluding remarks on sequencing.7 The sequencing of learning material, although a vital aspect of training design, is often neglected by trainers and instructional designers. The result is that the student often suffers, meaningful learning does not take place, and training time is unnecessarily wasted. The guidelines provided in this section can facilitate this process considerably and enhance the learning situation from the point of view of both the student and the enterprise. REFLECTION Reflect on what you have studied in this chapter. Why is it important to properly select and sequence the content of your learning programme? Motivate your answer. 6.7 Training programme planning 6.7 Introduction.1 Effective training requires good planning; that is, not only planning of the total training programme, but also of each specific intervention to be made during training. Each section of the programme must be planned in good time. The effective planning of these sections offers the trainer the opportunity to manage and control the future. 6.7 A programme plan EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 197  A.2 training programme should contain specific information, including the following:83 details of who the programme was designed for – the target population/the students what the participants/students should already have achieved. the learning outcomes timing and sequencing of the content the final outcome of the programme, namely, a qualification, improvement in status or position who will carry out the training – full-time or part-time, internal or external trainers the learning content – subjects, topics or session titles the training location – internal or external and ‘on or off job’ elements administrative arrangements how the programme will be conducted – methods and resources, individual or group programme assessment methods pre-and post-course requirements. The final outline of a training programme should clarify: what is to be covered who is to facilitate and who is the target population when (the timing and sequence) how (the methods and other resources required). In addition, two other elements should be considered: internal organisation (staff, facilities, equipment, materials, and timing) information to students (preparation and sending of joining instructions). The organisation of the programme should include practical details such as a timetable, meals and related issues, travel and arrival, pay and expenses, and pre-course preparation. 6.7 Considerations for developing a training programme.3 In developing a training programme, the trainer has to consider aspects such as the needs of students, whether or not they are employed, the level of expertise of students, gender and creed, and the outcomes of the training programmes. Other considerations are cultural background, staff and equipment required, time, cost, and finally, the strategies and the methods that will be employed to deliver and facilitate the learning. 84– 85 6.8 Factors that affect course development 6.8 Introduction.1 Various factors affect the design of a training programme and must therefore be taken into consideration. 6.8 Behavioural characteristics that affect course and learning development.2 Learning curves 6.8.2.1 The learning progression of a person displays a certain development pattern, as shown in Figure 6.8. Competency to perform a task can be measured in a variety of ways, such as measuring the number of mistakes made, marks obtained in a test, and the time it takes to master the course EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 198  content. A learning curve has been plotted on the graph in Figure 6.8. Where the curve moves up, learning takes place quickly and where the curve levels out, the learning tempo is slower. The point at which the curve levels out is known as a plateau. If the student cannot learn any further, reaches a psychological ceiling or maximum efficiency, the curve will form a straight horizontal line. FIGURE 6.8 Learning curve 6.8.2 Plateau.2 A plateau in the learning curve is experienced when, for example, students are not motivated, when poor instruction is given or when the student has to deal with too much course content. A plateau is, EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 199  however, a perfectly normal training phenomenon. When trainers observe a plateau, they should respond appropriately by, for example, allowing a break in training or changing some of the learning activities. 6.8.2 Degrees of difficulty of the subjects.3 Generally people tend to learn more difficult subjects slowly at first, mastering the content at a more rapid tempo as they become more competent. Less difficult subjects are initially mastered quickly but the learning tempo decreases as the level of perfection increases. The implication for programme development is that if a subject is easy, most of the course content should be presented at the beginning of the programme, as easier course content is absorbed faster. With regard to more difficult subjects, the course content should be distributed evenly over the programme, interspersed with regular practical sessions. 6.8.2 Saturation point and fatigue.4 Trainers should be aware of the fact that students can reach a saturation point when mastering the course content. When a course is planned, the trainer must constantly bear this possibility in mind. Saturation occurs when too much course content is presented without any breaks, or if the course content is confusing. Fatigue occurs when a student is mentally and/or physically exhausted. When a student is exhausted, the effectiveness of learning is adversely affected. The optimal learning time must therefore be selected, and sufficient relaxation sessions must be planned. 6.8 Learning sequence.3 The sequence in which course material is presented is another important aspect to be considered when developing a programme (see Section 6.6.8). 6.8 Imparting course and learning content.4 The requirements of presenting the programme will be addressed in more detail in Chapter 7. However, even at the development stage, the trainer/facilitator must consider the need to impart course content to the students, and students must be prepared for this. The following method can be applied: Phase 1: The student should be informed at the outset why he or she is attending the training programme. The value of the training should be explained to the student by his or her immediate supervisor in the workplace. Phase 2: Provide the student with an overview of the training to be given and of what the student will be able to do upon completion of the training. This includes the importance of the person’s work to the enterprise, and the place of his or her job in the overall work situation. Phase 3: Outline the purpose of the course and the learning outcomes. Phase 4: Put the student at ease. Course and learning content can be imparted in different ways: Verbally: Where the trainer informs the student about factual aspects. The student listens and takes down notes. Verbal imparting can also take the form of a description, allowing the student to form a mental picture of the subject under discussion. Verbal imparting can also take place by means of explanations, with the trainer helping the student to understand the subject better by providing him or her with principles and rules. The training situation requires continuous attention from both the trainer and the student. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 200  Illustration: When the trainer visually presents a specific item by showing it to the student. Students can touch the item and examine it in detail. Demonstration: Where the trainer demonstrates to the student what must be done. The finer points of the process must also be pointed out to students so that they can avoid pitfalls. 6.8 Reception.5 To ensure optimal learning, the trainer should present the course content in such a way that the student readily accepts it. The communication channels between trainer and student must always be open, and the trainer/student relationship must be sound. Key factors that affect the reception of course content are the method of presentation and the way in which interest is stimulated. 6.8 Listening.6 Both the trainer and the student must have the ability to listen. Imparting information is of the utmost importance since it directly affects the learning process. 6.8 Assimilation.7 When instruction takes place, the course content (input) required to achieve the outcomes is imparted to the student. The course content has no value if the student is not receptive towards it, or does not attempt to convert the input to learning. The process of converting input to a change in behaviour is known as assimilation. The change in behaviour is reinforced by exercise, which allows the student to gain more self-confidence in applying the new behaviour in practice. Programmes should ensure that assimilation actually takes place and sufficient exercise sessions should be planned to ensure a permanent change in behaviour. 6.8 Results of training.8 The ultimate goal of training is for students to achieve the set learning outcomes that will give them the competence to improve their performance. Feedback to students regarding their progress and performance is an important aspect which must be incorporated into a course to ensure success. TRAINING SERVICES OUTSOURCED According to the 9th ASTD State of the South African Learning and Development Industry Report 2011/12, 64% of training is designed externally on average, and 62% of training is delivered externally on average. Source: ASTD. 2011/12.86 6.9 Developing competency-based training 6.9 Introduction.1 The aim of a competency-based training programme is to provide students (employees) with the skills and knowledge they require for the successful completion of their daily (or future) tasks. The focus is on work outcomes, rather than on inputs. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 201  6.9 Requirements for a competency-based training programme.2 The content of a competency-based training programme may be based only on the job content of jobs held by employees. The training content must emphasise only those skills and tasks that enable the student to do his or her job successfully. During the learning process, a student must be exposed to well-planned, high quality, carefully-designed, student-based learning activities. The course content must be structured in such a way that the student can terminate his or her studies at any point. The student must also be able to work faster or slower and to repeat material, and must receive feedback on a regular basis. None of these aspects must be allowed to impede other students’ progress and must not require large-scale restructuring of the course content. Students must be given sufficient time to master each task before proceeding to the next. A task is completed only once the student is able to perform it at a high standard in an actual or simulated work environment. Performance must be linked to predetermined standards. 6.9 Characteristics of competency-based training.3 According to the former National Training Board report87 dealing with competency-based training, the following are characteristics of a competency-based training approach: The training system is individualised: The emphasis shifts from the group to the individual. The individual becomes the focal point and no longer competes with a group; he or she is responsible for his or her own performance. The course layout for a specific type of job is introduced beforehand: The worker is informed of the nature and extent of the various modules immediately after registering for a course. The worker therefore knows what is expected of him or her. Evaluation takes place on a continuous basis according to the skills mastered, allowing for continuous feedback to the student, causing him or her to be more motivated. Developing a competency-based training programme requires a great deal of time and research: Successful implementation of the training programme requires thorough research and good planning. A competency-based training programme is a systematic approach to training that is directed at individual performance and evaluated according to specific criteria: Table 6.5 shows the difference between the competency-based training approach and the traditional norm-orientated training system. 6.9 Steps in developing a competency-based training programme.4 The steps in developing a competency-based training programme are as follows: Step 1: Describe the specific professional group being investigated. A professional group comprises workers who do the same type of work, for example, bank tellers, instrument makers, electronic technicians or administrative personnel. The purpose of this step is to obtain a clear picture of the group to undergo training. A job description can possibly be used in this regard. Step 2: Identify the prerequisites for the training programme. These will ensure that the student will be able to master the content of the training programme. Step 3: Identify and verify tasks. The terms skill, task and profile are sometimes used as synonymous concepts. The name is, however, not important, although the way in which the training process is planned, developed and presented is. Tasks must be based on actual activities performed in the work environment and students must be able to learn on the basis of the tasks identified, which must also be verified. The purpose is to determine whether all tasks are finalised and complete. During this process, job analysis and subject specialists are used. The inputs of supervisors can also be used to identify tasks. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 202  Step 4: Analyse tasks in terms of job content and draw a distinction between knowledge and skills. Different task lists are arranged in this step to finalise a task inventory. Step 5: Formulate terminal objectives (or course learning outcomes) based on the identified tasks. Step 6: Arrange objectives (or outcomes) in the correct learning sequence. Step 7: Formulate performance tests to ensure that student performance is evaluated. Step 8: Prepare written tests to test the students’ ability to master complex concepts and terms. Step 9: Design a guide that will assist students in mastering the course content. Step 10: Test and revise the provisional student guide. Steps 11 and 12: Implement, evaluate and manage the training programme. The successful implementation of a training programme not only ensures success for the students who participate in the training but also contributes to the achievement of organisational objectives. Summary In the first section of this chapter, the focus was on the formulation of learning outcomes, the first step in OBE. We dealt with the requirements of learning outcomes, the different types of outcomes and taxonomies of learning. Taxonomies of learning were dealt with in a fair amount of detail since the taxonomies can help one to align one’s learning outcomes, teaching strategies and learning assessment. The next section of the chapter focused on selecting and sequencing content. We examined the factors one needs to consider in selecting content, various types of content and the steps in the selection of content. We then discussed various sequencing methods which are aimed at structuring the learning material for the student in a meaningful manner. Different aspects that can affect course development were discussed in the subsequent section of the chapter. Trainers should consider these aspects when developing programmes, as they contribute to the success of the course. Finally, knowledge of competency-based training is of crucial importance to any trainer. This approach is sometimes criticised as overemphasising tasks rather than outputs. Tasks do, however, presuppose certain outputs, and the output approach can therefore not ignore the competency-based approach. Questions for self-evaluation 1 Formulate a purpose statement and five specific learning outcomes that meet the requirements of good learning outcomes for a subject of your choice. If you cannot think of a subject, use ‘customer care’ as a subject. 2 How would you use Bloom’s Taxonomy to underpin the development of a training programme? 3 Classify the learning outcomes according to the taxonomy of learning of Anderson and Krathwohl. 4 Describe what content you would select for each of these outcomes. Which of the content you selected can be considered essential, which helpful and which peripheral? 5 Discuss the various types of content and indicate which type of content you have selected for the learning outcomes formulated in question 1 of these questions. 6 Discuss how you would sequence the content. Indicate what sequencing technique(s) you used. 7 Describe a recent training programme you underwent or that you organised according to the information under Section 6.7: Training programme planning. Do you think that the training programme was developed and planned properly? Discuss what improvement you would bring about in terms of what you have learned so far about programme design and development. 8 Explain the behavioural factors that could influence course development. Why are these factors important in the development of a programme? 9 Describe the principles and steps involved in the development of a competency-based training programme. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 203  10 What do you understand by the term ‘advanced organiser’? CASE STUDY 1 PROGRAMME DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT One afternoon at a farewell meeting, after everyone had had a few drinks, Peter (a foreman) and Thabo (an HR manager) discussed the value of training. Peter said, ‘I believe employees should be educated to do their job. Trainers do not focus on the correct issues. They talk about motivation, but if an employee does not want to do her job, she must go. I attended a two-day Industrial Relations (IR) training session organised by the IR Department and presented by a consultant a few weeks ago – but what a mess! I was not informed about the course details and when I arrived, I saw a number of my juniors attending. ‘But that wasn’t the worst. Listen to this: We started with the principles of motivation for half a day, after which the instructor began to discuss the tripartite structure, and we ended the day with a discussion on the value of grievance procedures. I thought we could have started with a discussion on the environmental issues influencing IR, followed by the tripartite system, and so on – but there was no structure at all. What a laugh! The instructor said we all had to use the same learning method and if we did well, everybody could have a day off and that should motivate all of us to do better on the next course. There seemed to be a lack of design and no structure. I wondered if the instructor knew what he was doing. My whole section was negative about the training as well.’ After Peter’s outburst, Thabo made an appointment with him for the next day to discuss some of the issues raised. Questions 1 What would you recommend to Thabo before his appointment with Peter? 2 What principles of course and learning design are involved? Do you think Thabo should explain them to Peter? Give reasons for your answer. 3 How would you have tackled the course design and development? Discuss your approach. ACTIVITY 1 Programme design and development 1 Identify a training course in your enterprise and establish the following: 1 the extent to which purpose statements and learning outcomes are formulated properly.1 the nature and content of the syllabus 1 the extent to which the classification of learning outcomes is given consideration in course design.2 the extent to which sequencing methods is applied in the sequencing of content 1 whether the factors that affect course and learning development are taken into consideration in the design of.3 courses. 1 Which components of programme design and development were omitted? Which components should be added to improve.4 the quality of the learning design? 21.5 References 1 Kavanagh, M.J. & Thite, M. 2009. Human Resource Information Systems. California: Sage Publications (p. 313). 2 Dessler, G. 2014. Fundamentals of human resource management. 3rd edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education (p. 183). 3 Beevers, K. & Rea, A. 2010. Learning and development practice. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (p. 100). 4 Kilfoil, W.R. 2005. Understanding SAQA: Glossary of terms. Pretoria: Unisa. 5 Coetzee, M. 2007. Practicing Education, Training and Development in South African Organizations. Cape Town: Juta. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 204  6 Famous Quotes. 2011. [Online]. Available at http://www.famousquotes.com. [Accessed 25 January 2012]. 7 Meyer, M., Mabaso, J. & Lancaster, K. 2001. ETD Practices in South Africa. Durban: LexisNexis Butterworths (p. 87). 8 Meyer, M. & Orpen, M. 2012. Occupational-directed ETD practices. 2nd edition. Durban: LexusNexis (p. 90). 9 Nkomo, M. 2000. The National Qualifications Framework and Curriculum Development. Pretoria: SAQA (p. 6). 10 Coetzee, 2007. op cit. (p. 124). 11 Olivier, C. 1998. How to Educate and Train: Outcomes-based. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers (p. 55). 12 SAQA. 2010. Designing a learning programme: A digest from NQF Support Link. Module 3. [Online]. Available at www.nqf.org.za/download_files/nqf-support/2Y.20. Designing. [Accessed 2 June 2011]. 13 Nkomo, 2000. op cit. (p. 7). 14 Olivier, 1998. op cit. (p. 56). 15 Spady, W.G. 1994. Outcome-based Education: Critical Issues and Answers. Virginia; American Association of School Administrators (p. 1). 16 Olivier, 1998. op cit. (p. 22). 17 Spady, 1994. op cit. (p. 2). 18 Ibid. (p. 49). 19 Olivier, 1998. op cit. (p. 24). 20 Coetzee, op cit. (p. 133). 21 Olivier, 1998. op cit. 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London: Kogan Page (p. 272). 32 Anderson, L. & Krathwohl, D. 2001. A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Longman. 33 Killen, 2005. op cit. (p. 181). 34 Ibid. 35 Anderson, 2001. op cit. (p. 232). 36 Ibid. (p. 232). 37 Killen, 2005. op cit. (p. 182). 38 Anderson, 2001. op cit. 39 Killen, 2005. op cit. 40 Anderson, 2001. op cit. (p. 232). 41 Ibid. (p. 183). EBSCOhost - printed on 8/7/2023 9:46 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 205  42 Owen Wilson, L. 2006. [Online]. Available at http//www.uwsp.edu/education/1wilson.crric /newtaxonomy.htm. [Accessed 23 July 2008]. 43 Wilson, 2012. op cit. (p. 274). 44 Killen, R. 2002. Teaching Strategies for Outcomes-based Education. Cape Town: Juta. 45 Ibid. 46 Mathis, R.L. & Jackson, J.H. 2005. Human Resource Management: Essential Perspectives. 3rd edition. South-Western: Thomson (p. 87). 47 Van Dyk et al., 2001. op cit. 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