Human Anatomy and Physiology Eleventh Edition Chapter 7 PDF

Human Anatomy and Physiology Eleventh Edition Chapter 07 The Skeleton PowerPoint® Lectures Slides prepared by Karen Dunbar Kareiva, Ivy Tech Community College...

Human Anatomy and Physiology Eleventh Edition Chapter 07 The Skeleton PowerPoint® Lectures Slides prepared by Karen Dunbar Kareiva, Ivy Tech Community College Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Why This Matters Understanding the anatomy of the skeleton enables you to anticipate problems such as pelvic dimensions that may affect labor and delivery Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Video: Why This Matters (Career Connection) Click here to view ADA compliant video: Why This Matters (Career Connection) https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs_wtm_ch_07_dea_v2 Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Skeleton The skeletal system, or skeleton, is composed of bones, cartilages, joints, ligaments – Mostly bone – Cartilage occurs in isolated areas – Ligaments connect bones and reinforce joints The skeleton accounts for 20% of body mass Two major divisions – Axial skeleton – Appendicular skeleton Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Part 1: The Axial Skeleton Axial skeleton consists of 80 bones divided into three major regions: – Skull – Vertebral column – Thoracic cage Axial skeleton has three functions: – Form longitudinal axis of body – Support head, neck, and trunk – Protect brain, spinal cord, and thoracic organs Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Human Skeleton (1 of 2) Figure 7.1a The human skeleton. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Human Skeleton (2 of 2) Figure 7.1b The human skeleton. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 7.1 The Skull (1 of 2) Skull is most complex bony structure in body Formed by two sets of bones: – Cranial bones (cranium)  Enclose the brain in the cranial cavity  Provide sites of attachment for head and neck muscles Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 7.1 The Skull (2 of 2) – Facial bones  Form framework of face  Contain cavities for special sense organs for sight, taste, and smell  Provide openings for air and food passage  Secure teeth  Anchor facial muscles used for facial expression – Most skull bones are flat and firmly locked together (except for mandible)  Joints are called sutures – Have a serrated, saw-tooth appearance Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Skull (1 of 4) Figure 7.2a The skull. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Overview of Skull Geography (1 of 2) Facial bones form anterior aspect, with cranium forming the rest of skull Cranium is divided into a vault and a base – Cranial vault (calvaria) forms superior, lateral, and posterior portion of skull, as well as forehead – Cranial base forms inferior aspect of skull  Internally base is divided into three “steps,” or fossae: anterior, middle, posterior fossae  Brain sits within these fossae, enclosed by cranium vault – Area referred to as cranial cavity Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Skull (2 of 4) Figure 7.2b The skull. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Skull (3 of 4) Figure 7.2c The skull. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Overview of Skull Geography (2 of 2) Cranium also contains other cavities: – Middle and internal ear cavities – Nasal cavity – Orbits that house eyeballs Skull has 85 named openings – Foramina, canals, fissures – Provide passageways for spinal cord, major blood vessels, and the 12 cranial nerves Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Major Cavities of the Skull, Frontal Section Figure 7.3 Major cavities of the skull, frontal section. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved  Cranium (1 of 11) Cranium is comprised of eight cranial bones: – Frontal bone – Parietal bones (two—left and right) – Occipital bone – Temporal bones (two—left and right) – Sphenoid bone – Ethmoid bone Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved  Cranium (2 of 11) Frontal bone: shell-shaped bone forms anterior portion of cranium – Vertical part, called squamous region, is also known as the forehead – Inferior portion ends at supraorbital margins  Area underneath eyebrows – Forms superior wall of the orbits and most of anterior cranial fossa – Supraorbital foramen (notch) allows supraorbital artery and nerve to pass to forehead – Glabella is area of frontal bone between orbits  Frontal sinuses located just lateral to glabella Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Anterior and Posterior Views of the Skull (1 of 9) Figure 7.4a Anterior and posterior views of the skull. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Base of the Cranial Cavity (1 of 4) Figure 7.7a The base of the cranial cavity. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Base of the Cranial Cavity (2 of 4) Figure 7.7b The base of the cranial cavity. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved  Cranium (3 of 11) Parietal bones and the major sutures – Two large parietal bones form most of superior and lateral aspects of cranial vault – Four sutures mark articulations of parietal bones with frontal, occipital, and temporal bones:  Coronal suture: between parietal bones and frontal bone  Sagittal suture: between right and left parietal bones  Lambdoid suture: between parietal bones and occipital bone  Squamous (squamosal) sutures: between parietal and temporal bones on each side of skull Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Skull (4 of 4) Figure 7.2a The skull. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Anterior and Posterior Views of the Skull (2 of 9) Figure 7.4b Anterior and posterior views of the skull. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Bones of the Lateral Aspect of the Skull, External and Internal Views (1 of 7) Figure 7.5a Bones of the lateral aspect of the skull, external and internal views Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Bones of the Lateral Aspect of the Skull, External and Internal Views (2 of 7) Figure 7.5b Bones of the lateral aspect of the skull, external and internal views. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Bones of the Lateral Aspect of the Skull, External and Internal Views (3 of 7) Figure 7.5c Bones of the lateral aspect of the skull, external and internal views. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Bones of the Lateral Aspect of the Skull, External and Internal Views (4 of 7) Figure 7.5d Bones of the lateral aspect of the skull, external and internal views. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved  Cranium (4 of 11) Occipital bone – Forms most of skull’s posterior wall and posterior cranial fossa – Articulates with parietal, temporal, and sphenoid bones – Foramen magnum: “large hole” through which brain connects with spinal cord  Flanked by pair of occipital condyles that articulate with 1st vertebra – Hypoglossal canal allows cranial nerve XII to pass through Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Cranium (5 of 11) – External occipital protuberance: protrusion just superior to foramen magnum – External occipital crest: ridges that are site of attachment for ligamentum nuchae – Superior and inferior nuchal lines: site of attachment for many neck and back muscles Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Anterior and Posterior Views of the Skull (3 of 9) Figure 7.4b Anterior and posterior views of the skull. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Inferior Aspect of the Skull, Mandible Removed (1 of 5) Figure 7.6a Inferior aspect of the skull, mandible removed. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Inferior Aspect of the Skull, Mandible Removed (2 of 5) Figure 7.6b Inferior aspect of the skull, mandible removed. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved  Cranium (6 of 11) Temporal bones: paired bones that make up inferolateral aspects of skull and parts of cranial base – Three major regions:  Squamous: zygomatic processes articulate with zygomatic bone to form zygomatic arch and mandibular fossa makes up part of temporomandibular joint  Tympanic: surround external acoustic meatus (external ear canal) Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Cranium (7 of 11)  Petrous: houses middle and internal ear cavities – Makes up part of the middle cranial fossa – Several foramina penetrate petrous region: Jugular foramen allows passage of three cranial nerves Carotid canal: passageway for internal carotid artery Foramen lacerum: jagged opening covered by cartilage in living human Internal acoustic meatus and styloidmastoid foramen: cranial nerve passageways – Mastoid and styloid processes: areas for attachment of several neck and tongue muscles Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Bones of the Lateral Aspect of the Skull, External and Internal Views (5 of 7) Figure 7.5a Bones of the lateral aspect of the skull, external and internal views. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Bones of the Lateral Aspect of the Skull, External and Internal Views (6 of 7) Figure 7.5b Bones of the lateral aspect of the skull, external and internal views. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Temporal Bone Figure 7.8 The temporal bone. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Inferior Aspect of the Skull, Mandible Removed (3 of 5) Figure 7.6a Inferior aspect of the skull, mandible removed. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Base of the Cranial Cavity (3 of 4) Figure 7.7a The base of the cranial cavity. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 7.1 Mastoid process contains cavities (sinuses) called mastoid air cells Mastoiditis can develop if a middle ear infection spreads into mastoid process area Mastoid air cells are separated from brain by a very thin bony plate, increasing chances that the infection could spread to brain Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved  Cranium (8 of 11) Sphenoid bone: complex, bat-shaped bone – Keystone bone that articulates with all other cranial bones – Sphenoidal sinuses found within body of sphenoid – Body also includes sella turcica prominence that includes hypophyseal fossa area enclosing the pituitary gland Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved  Cranium (9 of 11) Sphenoid contains three pairs of processes: – Greater wings – Lesser wings – Pterygoid processes Sphenoid contains several foramina: – Optic canals: allow passage of optic nerves – Superior orbital fissure: cranial nerve passage – Foramen rotundum and foramen ovale: also passageways for cranial nerves – Foramen spinosum: opening for arteries Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Sphenoid Bone Figure 7.9 The sphenoid bone. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved  Cranium (10 of 11) Ethmoid bone: deepest skull bone – Superior part formed by paired cribriform plates that also form roof of nasal cavity and floor of anterior cranial fossa – Crista galli: triangular process that is point of attachment for brain’s dura mater covering – Perpendicular plate: forms superior part of nasal septum and is flanked by lateral masses that contain sinuses called ethmoidal air cells  Lateral masses extend medially to form superior and middle nasal conchae – Orbital plates contribute to medial wall of orbits Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Ethmoid Bone Figure 7.10 The ethmoid bone. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Anterior and Posterior Views of the Skull (4 of 9) Figure 7.4a Anterior and posterior views of the skull. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Base of the Cranial Cavity (4 of 4) Figure 7.7a The base of the cranial cavity. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved  Cranium (11 of 11) Sutural bones – Tiny, irregularly shaped bones that appear within sutures – Significance is unknown, as not everyone has these Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Anterior and Posterior Views of the Skull (5 of 9) Figure 7.4b Anterior and posterior views of the skull. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Facial Bones (1 of 8) Facial skeleton is made up of 14 bones, 12 of which are paired (mandible and vomer are single) Mandible Lacrimal bones (2) Maxillary bones (2) Palatine bones (2) Zygomatic bones (2) Vomer Nasal bones (2) Inferior nasal conchae (2) Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Facial Bones (2 of 8) Mandible: largest, strongest bone of face – U-shaped lower jawbone made up of body (chin) and two upright rami  Mandibular angle: point where rami and chin meet  Coronoid process: superior end of rami serves as insertion point for large temporalis muscle  Condylar process: posterior to coronoid forms part of temporomandibular joint – Mandibular notch: separates processes  Body consists of alveolar process that contains sockets for teeth and mandibular symphysis ridge  Foramina include mandibular (for nerves) and mental foramina (for nerves and blood vessels) Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Detailed Anatomy of the Mandible and the Maxilla (1 of 2) Figure 7.11a Detailed anatomy of the mandible and the maxilla. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Anterior and Posterior Views of the Skull (6 of 9) Figure 7.4a Anterior and posterior views of the skull. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Facial Bones (3 of 8) Maxillary bones (maxillae): medially fused to form upper jaw and central facial skeleton – Upper teeth held in alveolar processes – Anterior nasal spine forms just below nose – Palatine process forms two-thirds of hard palate – Frontal process: forms lateral bridge of nose – Zygomatic processes articulate with zygomatic bones – Maxillary sinuses: flank nasal cavity laterally Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Facial Bones (4 of 8) – Openings for nerves and blood vessels include:  Inferior orbital fissure  Infraorbital foramen  Incisive fossa and canal Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Detailed Anatomy of the Mandible and the Maxilla (2 of 2) Figure 7.11b Detailed anatomy of the mandible and the maxilla. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Anterior and Posterior Views of the Skull (7 of 9) Figure 7.4a Anterior and posterior views of the skull. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Inferior Aspect of the Skull, Mandible Removed (4 of 5) Figure 7.6a Inferior aspect of the skull, mandible removed. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Facial Bones (5 of 8) Zygomatic bones – Form cheekbones and inferolateral margins of orbits – Articulate with zygomatic processes of temporal, frontal, and maxillary bones Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Anterior and Posterior Views of the Skull (8 of 9) Figure 7.4a Anterior and posterior views of the skull. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Facial Bones (6 of 8) Nasal bones – Form bridge of nose – Articulate with frontal, maxillary, and ethmoid bones – Attach to cartilage that forms tip of nose Lacrimal bones – Form medial walls of orbits – Articulate with frontal, maxillary, and ethmoid bones – Lacrimal fossa that houses lacrimal sac allows passageway for tears to drain Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Anterior and Posterior Views of the Skull (9 of 9) Figure 7.4a Anterior and posterior views of the skull. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Bones of the Lateral Aspect of the Skull, External and Internal Views (7 of 7) Figure 7.5a Bones of the lateral aspect of the skull, external and internal views. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Facial Bones (7 of 8) Palatine bones – L-shaped bones made from two bony plates  Horizontal plate: completes posterior one-third of hard palate  Perpendicular plate: forms part of posterolateral walls of the nasal cavity and a small part of the orbits Vomer – Plow-shaped bone; forms part of nasal septum Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Inferior Aspect of the Skull, Mandible Removed (5 of 5) Figure 7.6a Inferior aspect of the skull, mandible removed. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Bones of the Nasal Cavity (1 of 3) Figure 7.14a Bones of the nasal cavity. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Bones of the Nasal Cavity (1 of 2) Figure 7.14b Bones of the nasal cavity. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Facial Bones (8 of 8) Inferior nasal conchae – Paired bones that form part of lateral walls of nasal cavity – Largest of three pairs of conchae  Ethmoid bone forms other two pairs Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Bones of the Nasal Cavity (2 of 3) Figure 7.14a Bones of the nasal cavity. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Hyoid Bone (1 of 2) Not a bone of skull Lies in anterior neck inferior to mandible Only bone in body that does not articulate directly with another bone – Anchored by ligaments Acts as a movable base for tongue and site of attachment for muscles of swallowing and speech Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Hyoid Bone (2 of 2) Figure 7.12 The hyoid bone. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Special Characteristics of the Orbits and Nasal Cavity (1 of 3) Orbits – Cavities that encase eyes and lacrimal glands – Sites of attachment for eye muscles – Formed by parts of seven bones  Frontal, sphenoid, zygomatic, maxilla, palatine, lacrimal, and ethmoid Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Bones That Form the Orbits (1 of 2) Figure 7.13a Bones that form the orbits. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Bones That Form the Orbits (2 of 2) Figure 7.13b Bones that form the orbits. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Special Characteristics of the Orbits and Nasal Cavity (2 of 3) Nasal cavity: formed by parts of several bones – Roof: cribriform plates of ethmoid – Lateral walls: superior and middle conchae of ethmoid, perpendicular plates of palatine and Inferior nasal conchae  Spaces between conchae called meatuses  Conchae increase turbulence of air flow – Floor: processes of palatine and maxillary bones – Nasal septum  Bony posterior formed by vomer and perpendicular plate of ethmoid  Anterior formed by septal cartilage Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Bones of the Nasal Cavity (3 of 3) Figure 7.14a Bones of the nasal cavity. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Bones of the Nasal Cavity (2 of 2) Figure 7.14b Bones of the nasal cavity. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Special Characteristics of the Orbits and Nasal Cavity (3 of 3) Paranasal sinuses: formed from five skull bones: frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and paired maxillary bones – All contain mucosa-lined, air-filled spaces – Functions:  Warm and humidify air  Help to lighten skull  Enhance resonance of voice Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Paranasal Sinuses (1 of 2) Figure 7.15a Paranasal sinuses. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Paranasal Sinuses (2 of 2) Figure 7.15b Paranasal sinuses. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 7.2 The Vertebral Column General Characteristics Extends from skull to pelvis Also called spine or spinal column Functions to transmit weight of trunk to lower limbs, surround and protect spinal cord, provide attachment points for ribs and muscles Flexible curved structure contains 26 irregular bones called vertebrae in five major regions Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved General Characteristics (1 of 4) Regions and curvatures – Regions: ~28 long vertebral column broken into five major regions: 1. Cervical: consists of 7 vertebrae 2. Thoracic: 12 vertebrae 3. Lumbar: 5 vertebrae – Remember meal times: 7 am, 12 noon, and 5 pm 4. Sacrum: one bone, formed from fusion of several bones, articulates with hip 5. Coccyx: also fused bones that form terminus of column Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved General Characteristics (2 of 4) – Curvatures: four main curves in the column help to increase resilience and flexibility of spine  Cervical and lumbar curvatures – Concave posteriorly  Thoracic and sacral curvatures – Convex posteriorly Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Vertebral Column Figure 7.16 The vertebral column. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved General Characteristics (3 of 4) Ligaments: along with trunk muscles, help support vertebral column – Anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments: continuous bands from neck to sacrum that run down front and back of spine  Support and prevent hyperextension (backward) or hyperflexion (forward) bending – Ligamentum flavum: connects adjacent vertebrae – Short ligaments: connect each vertebra to those above and below Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Ligaments and Fibrocartilage Discs Uniting the Vertebrae (1 of 4) Figure 7.17a Ligaments and fibrocartilage discs uniting the vertebrae. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Ligaments and Fibrocartilage Discs Uniting the Vertebrae (2 of 4) Figure 7.17b Ligaments and fibrocartilage discs uniting the vertebrae. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved General Characteristics (4 of 4) Intervertebral discs – Cushionlike pad sandwiched between vertebrae that act as shock absorbers – Composed of two parts  Nucleus pulposus – Inner gelatinous nucleus – Gives disc its elasticity and compressibility  Anulus fibrosus – Outer collar composed of collagen and fibrocartilage – Limits expansion of nucleus pulposus when compressed Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Ligaments and Fibrocartilage Discs Uniting the Vertebrae (3 of 4) Figure 7.17c Ligaments and fibrocartilage discs uniting the vertebrae. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Ligaments and Fibrocartilage Discs Uniting the Vertebrae (4 of 4) Figure 7.17d Ligaments and fibrocartilage discs uniting the vertebrae. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 7.2 Severe physical trauma to spine may result in one or more herniated (prolapsed) discs Usually involves rupture of anulus fibrosus, resulting in protrusion of nucleus pulposus, which can press on spinal cord or nerves, causing numbness or excruciating pain Treatment: exercise, massage, heat, painkillers, or surgical intervention if non-surgical treatments are not successful Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 7.3 Abnormal spinal curvatures can be congenital or result from disease, poor posture, or unequal pull of muscles on spine Scoliosis: abnormal lateral rotation of spine, most often in thoracic region, which may lead to breathing difficulties Kyphosis (hunchback): is abnormal dorsal thoracic curvature common in people with osteoporosis, tuberculosis of spine, rickets, or osteomalacia Lordosis (swayback): is accentuated lumbar curvature that can result from disease but is also seen in men with pot bellies and in pregnant women Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Abnormal Spinal Curvatures Figure 7.18 Abnormal spinal curvatures. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved General Structure of Vertebrae (1 of 2) All have common structural pattern consisting of: – Body (centrum), the anterior weight-bearing region – Vertebral arch composed of:  Two pedicles: short pillars form sides of arch  Two laminae: fused, flattened plates form posterior arch – Vertebral foramen: enclosure formed by body and vertebral arch coming together – Vertebral canal: series of vertebral foramina – Intervertebral foramina: lateral openings between vertebrae for passage of spinal nerves Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Typical Vertebral Structures Figure 7.19 Typical vertebral structures. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved General Structure of Vertebrae (2 of 2) Vertebrae have seven processes: – Spinous process: projects posteriorly – Transverse processes (2): project laterally – Superior articular processes (2): protrude superiorly – Inferior articular processes (2): protrude inferiorly Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Animation: Rotatable Spine (Horizontal) Click here to view ADA compliant Animation: Rotatable Spine (Horizontal) https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/rotating-bone-model-spine-horizontal Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Animation: Rotatable Spine (Vertical) Click here to view ADA compliant Animation: Rotatable Spine (Vertical) https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/rotating-bone-model-spine-vertical Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Regional Vertebral Characteristics (1 of 7) Cervical vertebrae – C1 to C7: smallest, lightest vertebrae – C3 to C7 share following features:  Oval-shaped body  Exception: C7 spinous processes are split (bifid)  Large, triangular vertebral foramen  Transverse foramen found in each transverse process for artery passageways  C7 is vertebra prominens; large and can be felt through skin, so used as a landmark Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Table 7.2-1 Regional Characteristics of Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae (1 of 3) Table 7.2 Regional characteristics of cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Table 7.2-2 Regional Characteristics of Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae (1 of 3) Table 7.2 Regional characteristics of cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Table 7.2-3 Regional Characteristics of Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae (1 of 3) Table 7.2 Regional characteristics of cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Posterolateral Views of Articulated Vertebrae (1 of 4) Figure 7.21a Posterolateral views of articulated vertebrae. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Regional Vertebral Characteristics (2 of 7) Cervical vertebrae (cont.) – C1 (atlas) and C2 (axis) have unique features – Atlas (C1)  No body or spinous process  Consists of anterior and posterior arches, and two lateral masses  Superior surfaces of lateral masses articulate with occipital condyles – Occipital condyles “carry” skull  Movement for nodding head “Yes” Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The First and Second Cervical Vertebrae (1 of 4) Figure 7.20a The first and second cervical vertebrae. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The First and Second Cervical Vertebrae (2 of 4) Figure 7.20b The first and second cervical vertebrae. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Regional Vertebral Characteristics (3 of 7) – Axis (C2)  Has body and processes like other vertebrae  Major feature is knoblike dens that projects superiorly into anterior arch of atlas – Dens is the “missing” body of atlas  Dens is a pivot for rotation of atlas  Movement allows side to side rotation for saying “No” Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The First and Second Cervical Vertebrae (3 of 4) Figure 7.20c The first and second cervical vertebrae. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The First and Second Cervical Vertebrae (4 of 4) Figure 7.20d The first and second cervical vertebrae. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Posterolateral Views of Articulated Vertebrae (2 of 4) Figure 7.21a Posterolateral views of articulated vertebrae. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Regional Vertebral Characteristics (4 of 7) Thoracic vertebrae – T1 to T12 increase in size and articulate with ribs – Unique characteristics:  Body is heart shaped with two small demifacets that articulate with ribs – T10 to T12 have only single facet, not two  Vertebral foramen is circular  Long, sharp spinous process points inferiorly  Transverse processes have transverse costal facets that articulate with ribs (except T11, T12)  Location of articular facets allows rotation of this area of spine Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Table 7.2-1 Regional Characteristics of Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae (2 of 3) Table 7.2 Regional characteristics of cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Table 7.2-2 Regional Characteristics of Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae (2 of 3) Table 7.2 Regional characteristics of cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Table 7.2-3 Regional Characteristics of Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae (2 of 3) Table 7.2 Regional characteristics of cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Posterolateral Views of Articulated Vertebrae (3 of 4) Figure 7.21b Posterolateral views of articulated vertebrae. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Regional Vertebral Characteristics (5 of 7) Lumbar vertebrae – L1 to L5 “small of back”; receives most stress, so bodies are massive – Other characteristics:  Short, thick pedicles and laminae  Flat, hatchet-shaped spinous processes point posteriorly  Vertebral foramen is triangular  Orientation of articular facets locks lumbar vertebrae together to prevent rotation Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Table 7.2-1 Regional Characteristics of Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae (3 of 3) Table 7.2 Regional Characteristics of Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Table 7.2-2 Regional Characteristics of Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae (3 of 3) Table 7.2 Regional characteristics of cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Table 7.2-3 Regional Characteristics of Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae (3 of 3) Table 7.2 Regional characteristics of cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Posterolateral Views of Articulated Vertebrae (4 of 4) Figure 7.21c Posterolateral views of articulated vertebrae. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Regional Vertebral Characteristics (6 of 7) Sacrum: triangular bone shapes posterior wall of pelvis; made from five fused vertebrae (S1–S5) – Superior articular process articulates with L5 – Articulates inferiorly with coccyx and laterally with hip bones via its auricular surfaces, forming sacroiliac joints – Sacral promontory: anterosuperior margin – Transverse ridges mark lines of fusion – Anterior sacral foramina: lie at lateral ends of ridges; act as openings for nerves and vessels – Alae: winglike expansions Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Regional Vertebral Characteristics (7 of 7) Sacrum (cont.) – Median sacral crest: roughened bumps on posterior midline and lateral sacral crest; roughened area seen laterally on posterior side – Posterior sacral foramina: large openings for sacral spinal nerves – Sacral canal: continuation of vertebral canal – Sacral hiatus: large opening at end of canal Coccyx: tailbone formed from three to five fused vertebrae; articulates superiorly with sacrum – Very little function Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Sacrum and Coccyx (1 of 2) Figure 7.22a The sacrum and coccyx. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Sacrum and Coccyx (2 of 2) Figure 7.22b The sacrum and coccyx. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 7.3 Thoracic Cage Composed of: – Thoracic vertebrae posteriorly – Sternum and costal cartilages anteriorly – Ribs laterally Functions – Protects vital organs of thoracic cavity – Supports shoulder girdles and upper limbs – Provides attachment sites for muscles of neck, back, chest, and shoulders Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Thoracic Cage (1 of 3) Figure 7.23a The thoracic cage. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Sternum (1 of 2) Also called the breastbone; consists of three fused bones: – Manubrium: superior portion that articulates with clavicular notches and ribs 1 and 2 – Body: midportion that articulates with costal cartilages of ribs 2 through 7 – Xiphoid process: inferior end that is site of muscle attachment  Not ossified until ~age 40 Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Sternum (2 of 2) Sternum has three important anatomical landmarks: – Jugular notch  Central indentation in superior border of manubrium – Sternal angle  Horizontal ridge across front of sternum – Xiphisternal joint  Point where sternal body and xiphoid process fuse Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Thoracic Cage (2 of 3) Figure 7.23b The thoracic cage. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 7.4 Xiphoid process projects posteriorly in some people A blow to the chest (chest trauma) at the level of the xiphoid process can push process into underlying liver or heart Can cause massive hemorrhaging During CPR, hands must be position midsternum to avoid breaking off xiphoid process and damaging underlying organs Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Ribs (1 of 5) 12 pairs form sides of thoracic cage All attach posteriorly to bodies and transverse processes of thoracic vertebrae True (vertebrosternal) ribs (pairs 1–7) – Attach directly to sternum by individual costal cartilages False (vertebrochondral) ribs (pairs 8–10) – Attach indirectly to sternum by joining costal cartilage of rib above Vertebral (floating) ribs (pairs 11–12) – No attachment to sternum Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Thoracic Cage (3 of 3) Figure 7.23a The thoracic cage. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Ribs (2 of 5) Main parts of rib: – Shaft: flat bone that makes up most of rib  Costal groove: houses nerves and vessels – Head (posterior end)  Articulates with facets (demifacets) on bodies of two adjacent vertebrae – Neck: constricted portion beyond head – Tubercle: knoblike structure lateral to neck  Articulates posteriorly with transverse costal facet of same-numbered thoracic vertebra Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Ribs (3 of 5) Figure 7.24a Ribs. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Ribs (4 of 5) Figure 7.24b Ribs. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Ribs (5 of 5) Figure 7.24c Ribs. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Part 2: The Appendicular Skeleton Consists of bones of the limbs and their girdles – Pectoral girdle  Attaches upper limbs to body trunk – Pelvic girdle  Attaches lower limbs to body trunk Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 7.4 The Pectoral Girdle Pectoral girdle (shoulder girdle) consists of clavicles (anteriorly) and scapulae (posteriorly) – Attach upper limbs to axial skeleton – Provide attachment sites for muscles that move upper limbs – Offer great degree of mobility because:  Scapulae are not attached to axial skeleton  Socket of shoulder joint is shallow and does not restrict movement Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved A&P Flix: Movement of the Pectoral Girdle Click here to view ADA compliant Animation: A&P Flix: Movement of the Pectoral Girdle https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/apf-movement-of-the-pectoral-girdle Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Pectoral Girdle with Articulating Bones Figure 7.25 The pectoral girdle with articulating bones. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Clavicles Also called collarbones S-shaped sternal end articulates with sternum medially Flattened acromial end articulates laterally with scapula Anchor muscles and act as braces to hold the scapulae and arms out laterally Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Clavicle (1 of 2) Figure 7.26a The clavicle. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Clavicle (2 of 2) Figure 7.26b The clavicle. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Scapulae (1 of 3) Also called shoulder blades; thin, triangular flat bones on dorsal surface of rib cage, between ribs 2 and 7 Each scapula has three borders – Superior: shortest, sharpest border – Medial (vertebral): runs parallel to spine – Lateral (axillary): near armpit, ends superiorly in glenoid cavity fossa (shoulder joint) Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Scapulae (2 of 3) Each scapula has three angles where borders meet: – Superior angle: between superior and medial – Lateral angle: between superior and lateral – Inferior angle: between medial and lateral Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Scapulae (3 of 3) Bone features – Spine: prominent ridge posteriorly – Acromion: lateral projection that articulates with acromial end of clavicle to form acromioclavicular joint – Coracoid process: anterior projection that anchors bicep muscle of arm – Suprascapular notch: opening for nerves – Several large fossae named according to location Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Scapula (1 of 3) Figure 7.27a The scapula. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Scapula (2 of 3) Figure 7.27b The scapula. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Scapula (3 of 3) Figure 7.27c The scapula. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 7.5 The Upper Limb 30 bones form skeletal framework of each upper limb – Arm  Humerus – Forearm  Radius and ulna – Hand  8 carpal bones in the wrist  5 metacarpal bones in the palm  14 phalanges in the fingers Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Arm (1 of 3) Humerus: only bone of the arm; the largest and longest bone of upper limb Articulates superiorly with glenoid cavity of scapula Articulates inferiorly with radius and ulna Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Arm (2 of 3) Bone features – Head: proximal end that fits into glenoid cavity of scapula – Anatomical neck: slight constriction inferior to head – Greater tubercle is separated from lesser tubercle by the intertubercular sulcus  Sites of attachment of rotator cuff muscles – Surgical neck: most frequently fractured part of humerus Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Arm (3 of 3) Bone features (cont.) – Deltoid tuberosity: about midway down shaft; site of deltoid muscle attachment – Radial groove: carries radial nerve – Trochlea: distal hourglass-shaped condyle – Capitulum: distal ball-like condyle – Medial and lateral epicondyles: points of muscle attachment – Medial and lateral supracondyle ridges – Fossae: coronoid, olecranon, and radial Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Humerus of the Right Arm and Detailed Views of Articulation at the Elbow (1 of 2) Figure 7.28a, b, c The humerus of the right arm and detailed views of articulation at the elbow. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Humerus of the Right Arm and Detailed Views of Articulation at the Elbow (2 of 2) Figure 7.28d, e The humerus of the right arm and detailed views of articulation at the elbow. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Forearm (1 of 3) Two parallel bones form forearm skeleton: ulna and radius Proximal ends articulate with humerus and each other Distally articulate with each other at the radioulnar joint Interosseous membrane connects radius and ulna along their entire length Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Forearm (2 of 3) Ulna – Medial bone in forearm – Forms major portion of elbow joint with humerus – Bone features  Olecranon and coronoid processes: grip trochlea of humerus, forming hinge joint – Processes separated by trochlear notch  Radial notch: articulates with head of radius  Ulnar head: knoblike distal portion  Ulnar styloid process: ligament attachment Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Forearm (3 of 3) Radius – Lateral bone in forearm – Bone features  Head: articulates with capitulum of humerus and radial notch of ulna  Radial tuberosity: anchors biceps  Ulnar notch: articulates with ulna  Radial styloid process: anchors ligaments Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Radius and Ulna of the Right Forearm (1 of 2) Figure 7.29a, b, c Radius and ulna of the right forearm. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Radius and Ulna of the Right Forearm (2 of 2) Figure 7.29d, e Radius and ulna of the right forearm. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 7.5 Colles’ fracture: break in distal end of radius Very common fracture because person falling attempts to break fall with outstretched hands Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Hand (1 of 2) Bones of the hand include carpus, metacarpus, and phalanges Carpus (wrist): eight bones in two rows – Proximal row: lateral to medial  Scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, and pisiform – Distal row: lateral to medial  Trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate – Only scaphoid, lunate, and triquetrum form wrist joint Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Hand (2 of 2) Metacarpus (palm) – Five metacarpal bones (I to V from thumb to little finger) form the palm  Bases articulate with carpals, and heads articulate with proximal phalanges Phalanges (fingers) – Fingers (digits): numbered I to V starting at thumb (pollex) – Digit I (pollex) has two bones: no middle phalanx – Digits II to V have three bones: distal, middle, and proximal phalanx Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Bones of the Right Hand Figure 7.30 Bones of the right hand. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 7.6 Median nerve and tendons travel through carpal tunnel – Tunnel formed by ligaments through wrist Carpal tunnel syndrome can occur from overuse and inflammation of tendons, which can compress median nerve, causing tingling and numbness Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 7.6 The Pelvic Girdle Also called hip girdle; is formed by 2 hip bones (coxal bones, or os coxae) and sacrum – Attach lower limbs to axial skeleton with strong ligaments – Transmit weight of upper body to lower limbs – Support pelvic organs Less mobility but more stability than shoulder joint Three fused bones form coxal bone – Ilium, ischium, and pubis – Deep socket, acetabulum, formed at point of fusion receives head of femur Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Pelvis Figure 7.31 Pelvis. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Ilium (1 of 2) Ilium – Superior region of coxal bone – Auricular surface articulates with sacrum (sacroiliac joint) Ischium – Posteroinferior part of hip bone Pubis – Anterior portion of hip bone – Pubis joins at pubic symphysis joint Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Ilium (2 of 2) Superior region of hip bone Consists of body and winglike ala – Iliac crests: thickened superior margin of ala – Iliac crest ends at anterior superior iliac spine and posterior superior iliac spine Greater sciatic notch: sciatic nerve passage Gluteal surface contains three ridges: posterior, anterior, and inferior gluteal lines Iliac fossa: concavity on ala Auricular surface articulates with sacrum Arcuate line: defines pelvic brim Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Ischium Posteroinferior part of hip bone Consists of body and ramus Three important markings: – Ischial spine – Lesser sciatic notch – Ischial tuberosity Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Pubis V-shaped anterior portion of hip bone Consists of the body and superior and inferior pubic rami Anterior border forms the pubic crest Lateral end forms pubic tubercle Obturator foramen: large opening formed by rami and body Pubic bones join at pubic symphysis Pubic arch (subpubic angle): formed by rami; main difference between male and female pelves Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Hip (Coxal) Bones (1 of 2) Figure 7.32a The hip (coxal) bones. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Hip (Coxal) Bones (2 of 2) Figure 7.32b The hip (coxal) bones. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Pelvic Structure and Childbearing Pelvis: formed by hip bones, sacrum, and coccyx Female pelvis tends to be wider, shallower, lighter, and rounder than male’s – Adapted for childbearing Pelvic brim (pelvic inlet): continuous oval ridge that runs from pubic crest through arcuate line and sacral promontory False pelvis: superior to pelvic brim True pelvis: inferior to pelvic brim; defines birth canal – Pelvic outlet: inferior margin of true pelvis Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Female True and False Pelves Figure 7.33 Female true and false pelves. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Table 7.4-1 Comparison of the Male and Female Pelves Table 7.4 Comparison of the Male and Female Pelves Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Table 7.4-2 Comparison of the Male and Female Pelves Table 7.4 Comparison of the Male and Female Pelves Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Table 7.4-3 Comparison of the Male and Female Pelves Table 7.4 Comparison of the Male and Female Pelves Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 7.7 The Lower Limb Carries entire weight of erect body Subjected to exceptional forces during jumping or running Three segments of lower limb – Thigh – Leg – Foot Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Thigh (1 of 3) Femur is largest and strongest bone in the body, making up about one-fourth of person’s height Articulates proximally with acetabulum of hip and distally with tibia and patella Patella: sesamoid bone in quadriceps tendon that protects knee joint Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Thigh (2 of 3) Bone features – Fovea capitis: small pit in ball-like head – Greater and lesser trochanters: muscle attachment sites  Trochanters connected by intertrochanteric line and intertrochanteric crest – Gluteal tuberosity blends into linea aspera, which diverges into medial and lateral supracondylar lines Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Thigh (3 of 3) Bone features (cont.) – Distally, femur ends in lateral and medial condyles that articulate with tibia – Medial and lateral epicondyles: sites of muscle attachment  Adductor tubercle: medial epicondyle bump – Patellar surface: articulates with patella – Intercondylar fossa: lies between condyles Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Bones of the Right Knee and Thigh Figure 7.34 Bones of the right knee and thigh. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Table 7.5-2 Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton, Part 2: Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb (continued) Table 7.5 Bones of the appendicular skeleton, part 2: pelvic girdle and lower limb Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Leg (1 of 2) Made up of two parallel bones, tibia and fibula – Connected by interosseous membrane Tibia: medial leg bone that receives weight of body from femur; transmits to foot Fibula – Not weight bearing; no articulation with femur – Several muscles originate from fibula – Articulates proximally and distally with tibia Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Leg (2 of 2) Bone features – Tibia  Medial and lateral condyles  Intercondylar eminence  Tibial tuberosity  Anterior border  Medial malleolus  Fibular notch – Fibular:  Head  Lateral malleolus Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Tibia and Fibula of the Right Leg (1 of 2) Figure 7.35a,b,c The tibia and fibula of the right leg. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Tibia and Fibula of the Right Leg (2 of 2) Figure 7.35d,e The tibia and fibula of the right leg. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 7.7 A bimalleolar fracture is a break in the distal ends of both the tibia and fibula It is a common sports injury See Figure 7.35c for x-ray photo of a bimalleolar fracture Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Foot (1 of 3) Skeleton of foot includes bones of tarsus, metatarsus, and phalanges Tarsus: 7 tarsal bones form posterior half – Body weight carried primarily by talus and calcaneus (heel) – Calcaneal tuberosity: part that touches ground  Sustentacular tali (talar shelf): supports talus – Other tarsal bones: cuboid, navicular, and medial, intermediate, and lateral cuneiform bones Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Foot (2 of 3) Metatarsals – Five metatarsal bones (I to V from hallux to little toe) – Enlarged head of metatarsal I forms “ball of the foot” Phalanges – 14 bones of toes – Digit I (hallux, great toe) has two bones: no middle phalanx – Digits II to V have three bones: distal, middle, and proximal phalanx Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Bones of the Right Foot (1 of 3) Figure 7.36a Bones of the right foot. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Bones of the Right Foot (2 of 3) Figure 7.36b Bones of the right foot. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Bones of the Right Foot (3 of 3) Figure 7.36c Bones of the right foot. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Foot (3 of 3) Arches of the foot – Maintained by interlocking foot bones, ligaments, and tendons – Allow foot to bear weight – Three arches  Lateral longitudinal: low curve that elevates lateral part of foot  Medial longitudinal: arch curves upwards  Transverse: runs obliquely from one side of foot to other Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Arches of the Foot (1 of 2) Figure 7.37a Arches of the foot. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Arches of the Foot (2 of 2) Figure 7.37b Arches of the foot. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 7.8 Flat foot, or pes planus (or sometimes “fallen arches) may be a congenital condition or may be acquired later in life Can also be caused by: increasing age, obesity or high-impact activities Wearing proper footwear with good arch support can help prevent problem – Orthotic shoe inserts may also help manage symptoms Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton (1 of 4) Infant skull has more bones than adult skull – Skull bones such as mandible and frontal bones are unfused – Skull bones connected by fontanelles  Unossified remnants of fibrous membranes  Ease birth and allow brain growth  Four fontanelles – Anterior, posterior, mastoid, and sphenoidal Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Skull of a Newborn Figure 7.38 Skull of a newborn. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 7.9 Congenital abnormalities may distort skull Cleft palate is the most common condition – No medial fusion of right and left halves of palate – Interferes with sucking – Can lead to aspiration of food into lungs, which may result in aspiration pneumonia Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Cleft Lip and Palate Figure 7.39 Cleft lip and palate. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton (2 of 4) At birth, cranium is huge relative to face At 9 months, cranium is half the adult size Mandible and maxilla are foreshortened but lengthen with age Arms and legs grow at faster rate than head and trunk, leading to adult proportions Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Different Growth Rates of Body Parts Determine Body Proportions (1 of 2) Figure 7.40a Different growth rates of body parts determine body proportions. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Different Growth Rates of Body Parts Determine Body Proportions (2 of 2) Figure 7.40b Different growth rates of body parts determine body proportions. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton (3 of 4) Primary curvatures of thorax and sacrum are convex at birth, resulting in C-shaped spine Secondary curvatures of cervical and lumbar regions convex anteriorly as child develops Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The C-shaped Spine of a Newborn Infant Figure 7.41 The C-shaped spine of a newborn infant. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton (4 of 4) As we age, intervertebral discs become thin, less hydrated, and less elastic – Risk of disc herniation increases Several centimeters of height loss is common by age 55 Costal cartilages ossify – Rigid thorax causes shallow breathing and less efficient gas exchange All bones lose mass, so fracture risk increases Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 7.10 Developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH) can occur in up to 2% of all newborns and include partial or complete dislocation of the femoral head and poorly developed acetabulum – High-risk infants include those presenting as breech births Treatment includes ultrasound of the hips followed with harnesses, casting, or surgery. Unrecognized DDH can lead to problems later in life, including degenerative arthritis. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Copyright Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved