Chapter 5 Revision PDF

Chapter 5 Revision Thursday, October 10, 2024 8:33 PM Haluwa, a nutritious porridge-like meal consisting of a fortified wheat-soya blend with sugar an provided to young children during school hours every day. Because of the meal, children like La their studies and receive the nutrition they nee...

Chapter 5 Revision Thursday, October 10, 2024 8:33 PM Haluwa, a nutritious porridge-like meal consisting of a fortified wheat-soya blend with sugar an provided to young children during school hours every day. Because of the meal, children like La their studies and receive the nutrition they need, increasing their ability to learn and eventually members of their communities when they grow up. Thousands of miles away the “little doctor” program delivers medical information throughout p children as peer educators. Everything from personal hygiene to nutrition to deworming progra the schools. In the United States, school health centers improved children’s health and educatio American Editors 2022). With the advent of more new diseases, declining vaccination rates and and increase in hunger, the schools as a vehicle for health care, nutrition and education makes Corrupt officials in Kenya sell multiple deeds for the same land. They make extra cash, but child lucrative developer buys a deed for the land on which their school stands (Gramer 2017). In Ken human development, people complete only 6.6 years of schooling on average, not enough to a life chances. Despite reforms in law and policy, land fraud in Kenya remains widespread and thr 2020, a road routed through Kibera displaced 30,000 people and 2,000 students were left witho Zainab, another primary school child, sits in the middle of a group of 50 girls. Born in Pakistan a could not afford to send her to school. On returning to Afghanistan, she is just starting school a loves school for the learning and the opportunity to be with friends. Her school in the Gamberi serves about 600 students with six teachers. More than 100 other children, aged 10 years to 15 to school, including Zainab’s siblings. She worries that next year neither will she. “I don’t want t Across Afghanistan, returnees share the hope that their children can finally go to school (UNICE in Afghanistan, a mere 3.9 years of schooling is the national average. What chance do these chi does the world have? In comparison with some other countries, even Zainab’s situation seems fortuitous. Some child over 100 students, some go in the open air where there are no classrooms, some share textboo students, and the global shortage of teachers is so great that many are taught by untrained and teachers. Many children with disabilities, 93 million, and even more girls do not go to school at nutrition may go to school, but their malnutrition will cause cognitive stunting as well as physic 2014). Education, along with good nutrition and good health, is essential for the development of the in The benefits to individuals, their families, communities, and societies are indisputable. The who nd vegetable oil, is alita are able to continue y [become] productive primary schools using ams are delivered through onal outcomes (Scientific d educational outcomes, sense. dren lose when a more nya, medium level in achieve their potential in reatens education. In out a school (TI 2020). as a refugee, her family at 10 years old. Now, she returnee settlement 5 years, do not get to go to stop here,” she says. EF Afghanistan 2017). But ildren have? What chance dren are in classes of well oks with 10 or more other d poorly educated all. Children with poor cal stunting (Global Citizen ndividual and the society. ole world benefits. teachers. Many children with disabilities, 93 million, and even more girls do not go to school at nutrition may go to school, but their malnutrition will cause cognitive stunting as well as physic 2014). Education, along with good nutrition and good health, is essential for the development of the in The benefits to individuals, their families, communities, and societies are indisputable. The who Education improves personal health and the health of families. Even primary education can ma outcomes in the developing world. A person with just a primary education is much less likely to person without any education. Just 6 years of schooling improves rates of prenatal care, assiste care, and immunization. For each year of schooling in a poor country, a person’s income increa the individual and their society, but the entire global order benefits from a well-educated popu Because women bear primary responsibility for agriculture in the developing world, female edu productive farming and decreases in malnutrition. Education promotes the growth of civil socie growth of society. A study of 19 developing societies demonstrated that a country’s long-term g percent for every year’s increase in average years of schooling in the adult population (Roudi-Fa 2003). Global norms dictate that a modern and good society provides education sufficient for every pe potential.In agricultural societies, people learned most of what they needed to know at home. private function rather than a public function. Gradually, from the late eighteenth century to th education became a public concern as societies developed. Both in Prussia and in the United St immigrants convinced the reformers of the period, and eventually most of the public, that univ by the public, not parents, was necessary to transform immigrants into citizens and a productiv like other large formal organizational systems, followed the model of bureaucratic organization management principles that globalized in that period. The dual function of education, for citizenship and economic development, and the provision o through public funding globalized, as did the bureaucratic model. Mass education spread gradu internationalization of the state system—irrespective of a society’s levels of income or industria more than 80 percent of people alive had no formal schooling (Roser and Nagdy 2016). By 1870 nation had achieved more than 10 percent enrollment of 5 to 14 year olds in school. Until Worl grew at about 5 percent annually on average; by World War II, only 10 percent to 15 percent of the 10 percent enrollment mark. As nations integrated further into the system of states, school enrollments growing at about 12 percent per year (Meyer, Ramirez, and Soysal 1992). After the normative standard of mass schooling as an indicator of a good state became explicit with the U Declaration of Human Rights, Article 26, which declares education a human right. During the twenty-first century, primary school enrollment is almost universal and secondary is completion at the global level was 90 percent in 2020, up from 74 percent in 1970. However, th countries lag at 74 percent, and among those, sub-Saharan Africa is only at 69 percent. Comple secondary education worldwide in 2020 was 77 percent but ranged from over 95 percent in de percent in least developed countries and only 40.6 percent in the heavily indebted poor countr For upper-secondary, completion rates vary from 21 percent in low-income countries to 90 per  all. Children with poor cal stunting (Global Citizen ndividual and the society. ole world benefits. ake a difference in health o contract HIV than a ed childbirth, postnatal ases 10 percent. Not only ulation. ucation leads to more ety and the economic growth increases 3.7 ahimi and Moghadam erson to achieve their full Formal schooling was a he nineteenth century, tates, an influx of versal education paid for ve workforce.1 Education, n and scientific of universality achieved ually along with the alization. As late as 1820, 0, nearly every developed ld War II, enrollments f societies had reached ling expanded, with e war, the implied United Nations (UN) s close. Primary school he least developed etion rates for lower eveloped societies to 47.3 ries (World Bank 2022a). rcent in high-income completion at the global level was 90 percent in 2020, up from 74 percent in 1970. However, th countries lag at 74 percent, and among those, sub-Saharan Africa is only at 69 percent. Comple secondary education worldwide in 2020 was 77 percent but ranged from over 95 percent in de percent in least developed countries and only 40.6 percent in the heavily indebted poor countr For upper-secondary, completion rates vary from 21 percent in low-income countries to 90 per countries (UNESCO 2022a). More females are out of school than males; reflecting conditions primarily in sub-Saharan Afric frequently segregated or overlooked entirely. It is also striking that the number of children out decreased significantly from 2000 to 2007 and since has remained relatively constant, fluctuatin 2007 to 2020 but the number increased from about 60.5 million to 64 million as of June 2022 (W these 64 million out of school children, 23 million will probably never enter a school. At the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic, 1.6 billion children were out of school (World Bank 202 years of educational attainment globally, however, even then wealth made a difference; those internet connection and home computers—or whose schools provided them—fared much bett Everyone will suffer from the years of schooling missed. The economic return on investment in US$ 5 gained for every $1 spent in education. Globally, there is a 10 percent increase in hourly school completed (World Bank 2022b). If every child in low-income countries achieved basic re people would be lifted out of poverty, decreasing global poverty by 12 percent (GPE 2017). Consider the costs of just the gender gap in the least developed societies. Women’s education on the physical, economic, and social health of their families and the larger society that are lost their potential: A 1 percent increase in girls’ secondary education reaps a 3 percent payoff in gross domestic pr Every additional year of a woman’s education beyond the average raises her eventual income 1 Every additional year of girls’ schooling adds one half to one third additional year to their children’s education, avoids two maternal deaths per 1,000 girls, and lowers child mortality by 5 percent to 10 percent. Females with secondary education are three times less likely to become HIV infected. An increase of 4 years of education reduces a woman’s fertility by one child. Educated women are less likely to be a victim of domestic violence, more likely to participate in and four times more likely to oppose female genital cutting (Tembon 2008). Women’s education provides them with more control over resources, which results in more spe education for children (Revenga and Shetty 2012). Women’s education leads to them having a greater voice in political decisions, which generally expenditures on public goods such as sanitation and water (Revenga and Shetty 2012). Primary school attendance fell short of meeting the Millennial Development Goal (MDG) of uni by 2015 and will not meet the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) of universal secondary edu secondary education exists in only a few countries. Attendance rates in West and Central Africa primary school completion is about 60 percent (UNICEF 2021) limiting advancing to secondary. distance to school, and the need to earn an income are relevant in both primary and secondary  he least developed etion rates for lower eveloped societies to 47.3 ries (World Bank 2022a). rcent in high-income ca. The disabled are of primary school ng around 9 percent from World Bank 2022a). Of 22b). The pandemic cost who could afford reliable ter. education is significant— earnings for every year of eading skills, 171 million has far-reaching effects t if girls are not achieving roduct (GDP). 10 percent to 20 percent. n political and civil affairs, ending on food and results in greater iversal primary education ucation by 2030. Universal a are the worst, where The main barriers of cost, y school but are more Primary school attendance fell short of meeting the Millennial Development Goal (MDG) of uni by 2015 and will not meet the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) of universal secondary edu secondary education exists in only a few countries. Attendance rates in West and Central Africa primary school completion is about 60 percent (UNICEF 2021) limiting advancing to secondary. distance to school, and the need to earn an income are relevant in both primary and secondary pronounced in secondary. In Ukraine, with over a year of horrific war with thousands of homes destroyed, millions of Ukra eager and able to get online to attend school. In even the most developed countries, the COVID of educational attainment. Groups consistently most disadvantaged lost the most because they wealth, and educational burdens of COVID. Progress toward quality education is uneven, and inequalities persist. Inequality gaps in attenda residence (urban or rural), and gender all increase as years in school increase. Secondary schoo developing world lag far behind those in the developed world. Gender equality has been attain countries, but in Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia more girls than boys are out of school, gender gap in both primary and secondary education, posing a significant barrier to their econo societies in Latin America and in East Asia and the Pacific, the gender gap now favors females. An estimated 244 million children, ages 6 to 18 were out of school in 2021, 118.5 million girls a Although COVID increased the number of children out of school, progress had already slowed o decade. Although the world is close to universal primary education, 57 percent of children could not rea simple text by age 10. School closures due to COVID pushed this figure higher, particularly amo children. The impact of COVID on achievement in primary grades may negate 10 years of impro loss may be as high as 12 percent (Save the Children 2021; World Bank 2022c). Life chances wit mental health and participation in civil society are also hindered. Whereas the period from 2000 to 2015 explicitly addressed gender discrimination, those years education close significantly, with girls achieving higher levels of attainment than boys in a num Discrimination against minorities and lower socioeconomic classes in education need to be targ intensity to reduce inequality. Socioeconomic background remains the single most predictive factor of student achievement. T background of individuals within a school affects educational outcomes. When students are seg within schools, it creates richer and poorer schools and increases inequalities in outcomes. A World Bank study of more than 100 countries found that educational opportunity accounted disparities in educational achievement (Ferreira and Gignoux 2013). This held not only for deve for developed societies. Among the findings of the study is that increasing the share of public e spent in early primary grades increases the level of equality of opportunity and the equality in t Because children come to school with different levels of preparation related to background fact iversal primary education ucation by 2030. Universal a are the worst, where The main barriers of cost, y school but are more ainian students were D-19 pandemic cost years y bore the greatest health, ance by income, ol completion rates in the ned in two thirds of resulting in an overall omic progress. In some and 125.5 million boys. over the preceding ad and understand a ong the most at-risk ovement. Lifetime income th respect to physical and saw gender gaps in mber of countries. geted with the same The socioeconomic gregated by background for up to 35 percent of all eloping societies but also educational expenditures the chance to achieve. tors such as parental A World Bank study of more than 100 countries found that educational opportunity accounted disparities in educational achievement (Ferreira and Gignoux 2013). This held not only for deve for developed societies. Among the findings of the study is that increasing the share of public e spent in early primary grades increases the level of equality of opportunity and the equality in t Because children come to school with different levels of preparation related to background fact education and income, targeting early years of schooling helps children make up for some of th The researchers also found that increasing tracking—putting students into different educationa by vocational school enrollment in secondary education—decreased educational opportunity. A study of the dispersion of learning outcomes in school systems for more than 50 countries (M the distribution of teachers and of better teachers across the schools in a system, the absence o intensity of schooling all played significant roles in reducing negative educational outcomes. The Montt (2011) study found that ensuring equal distribution of qualified teachers reduced ine Education from a rights-based perspective demands that policy and program work to give all ch appropriate to their cultural, social, structural, and individual needs. The goals of global competence are to enable students to develop cultural awareness and respectful interactions in increasingly diverse societies; recognise and challenge cultural biases and stereotypes, and facilitate harmonious living in mul prepare for the world of work, which increasingly demands individuals who are effective comm people from different cultural backgrounds, can build trust in diverse teams and can demonstra especially as technology continues to make it easier to connect on a global scale; capitalise on inherently interconnected digital spaces, question biased media representations, a responsibly online; [and] care about global issues and engage in tackling social, political, economic and environmental ch The right to education of children, of all children, is protected by national laws. However, globa are excluded. About 40 percent do not have access in a language that they understand. About t who may never step into a classroom—9 million—are girls. Children with disabilities are two and one half less likely than their peers to go to school (UNESC but the wealthiest, for every 100 children in the richest families who complete secondary schoo do. And children with disabilities are often segregated. The majority of immigrant children atte half the students are immigrants (UNESCO 2020). While primary education has just about achie 70 girls are in school for every 100 boys. Including and retaining girls in school is critical for them societies. One year more of schooling can increase a girl’s adult earnings up to 20 percent and 1 under 17 in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia would become pregnant if they completed prima 2021). This sort of sidelining of groups is a form of separate and unequal. The right to education of children with disabilities is protected by national laws. They are less li  for up to 35 percent of all eloping societies but also educational expenditures the chance to achieve. tors such as parental hat disadvantage. al programs as measured Montt 2011) found that of tracking, and the equality in attainment. hildren an education lticultural communities; municators, are open to ate respect for others, and express their voice hallenges. (OECD n.d.) ally, roughly 244 million three quarters of children CO 2022d). In all nations ol, only 18 in the poorest end schools where at least eved gender parity, only mselves and their 10 percent fewer girls ary education (Klaassen ikely to start and less 70 girls are in school for every 100 boys. Including and retaining girls in school is critical for them societies. One year more of schooling can increase a girl’s adult earnings up to 20 percent and 1 under 17 in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia would become pregnant if they completed prima 2021). This sort of sidelining of groups is a form of separate and unequal. The right to education of children with disabilities is protected by national laws. They are less li likely to transition to secondary school. Quality inclusive education is one of the SDGs for educa is necessary to accomplish all the other goals as well. The International Disability and Developm designed action points help educators target reforms to make education inclusive for students childhood education, proper teacher training, equal access to scholarships, disability-compliant appropriate vocational and tertiary education, and gender- and disability-sensitive learning env for all. In 2020, the World Bank Group predicted that by 2030 two thirds of the world’s poor would be ridden, and violent countries. For children this can mean lifelong physical and mental trauma an education, if education is not entirely lost to them (World Bank n.d.). In 2020, 456 million childr many of them at risk of recruitment as child soldiers, an increase globally from 2009 to 2020 (K The Interagency Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE) sets minimum standards for child situations. Education is even more important in emergency situations. Intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations have implemented the INEE standards The Community Education Committee was formed and sent female members to identify reason participation. INEE provides guidelines and toolkits that show how. The benefits of preprimary education are undeniable. Both developed and developing societies It improves educational outcomes of children from disadvantaged backgrounds, and it frees wo producing jobs. The global gross enrollment in early childhood education grew significantly from in 2000 to 61 percent in 2020 but still leaving 175 million 3 to 6 year olds out of school. Howeve from the richest quintile attend and only 58 percent from the poorest; 82 percent from urban a from rural areas. These gaps vary by region. The gap tends to be larger in regions that are poore year of preprimary education would help close the gaps (UNESCO 2015a). One way to provide g contracting with private partners to deliver preschool education and paying the school fees for In Vietnam, for example, where preprimary education is mandatory for 5 year olds, there is a sh teachers who meet the set standards (Vietnam News 2020). In urban sub-Saharan Africa, demand for preprimary education is strong. In some areas, more children are enrolled—almost exclusively in private schools. Roughly 70 to 84 percent of childre mselves and their 10 percent fewer girls ary education (Klaassen ikely to start and less ation. Inclusive education ment Consortium (IDCC) with disabilities—early t infrastructure, access to vironments that are safe e living in fragile, conflict nd lost years of ren lived in conflict zones, Kamøy et al. 2021). dren in these harsh around the world. ns for low female s benefit from it. omen to pursue income- m 28 percent enrollment er, 90 percent of children areas and only 68 percent er (UNICEF 2022a). One greater access is through families (UNESCO 2015a). hortage of 45,000 than 80 to 90 percent of en from the poorest In Vietnam, for example, where preprimary education is mandatory for 5 year olds, there is a sh teachers who meet the set standards (Vietnam News 2020). In urban sub-Saharan Africa, demand for preprimary education is strong. In some areas, more children are enrolled—almost exclusively in private schools. Roughly 70 to 84 percent of childre quintile are enrolled. In contrast, in South Africa the government gives 1 year of preprimary edu grade R. In Soweto, nearly all the students—aged 5 and 6 years2—are in government schools. T public and private centers is much more child centered, with play centers, group learning, and h government involvement in sub-Saharan schools can increase the number of programs availabl and provide better educational experiences (UNESCO 2015a). Public education campaigns concerning the nature of preprimary school and differences from p successful in Thailand and Ghana. There were about 757 million adults (age 15 years and over) who could not read and write in 20 not confined to developing countries. Illiteracy is found in middle- and high-income countries a percent of adults have poor literacy skills. Illiteracy prevents people from fully participating in t They are more likely to suffer from unemployment, lower wages, and poor health. They are les the political life of their society (UNESCO 2016). As the global population ages, life-long learning for seniors can improve the four “geriatric gian incontinence and cognitive impairments” (Vankova 2022). In any society, as industrial sectors c education and training for adults is critical for their employment and to maintain a workforce to employment needs. Schools for Life is a model arguably more attuned to the needs of developing countries but can to schoolwork in developed societies as well. Rather than work toward achieving standardized students learn how to have a positive impact on their communities—student-centered strategi work in teams tackling real problems; health modules, and entrepreneurship models are the ce higher level skills and concepts through active learning (Epstein and Yuthas 2012). The Escuela Nueva model is such a school for life. Clara Victoria Colbert founded Escuela Nueva to improve the quality of rural schools. Applying progressive, democratic education theories of the system helps students develop academic skills in meaningful contexts. Teachers can teach t using the guides. The model has spread across Colombia, and 16 countries have replicated it. It (Kamenetz, Drummond, and Yenigun 2016). The schools of Finland have been a curiosity around the world. Their students are among the hi PISA tests, although Finnish educators say that they don’t pay much attention to the tests beca testing themselves. They do not pay their teachers the top salaries in the world, but their teach top 10 percent of graduates, who then need to get a graduate degree in education. More than graduate from an academic or vocational high school, and 66 percent go on to college. hortage of 45,000 than 80 to 90 percent of en from the poorest ucation—the reception or The instruction in the home language. Greater le, lower cost for parents, primary schools have been 013. This population is as well. In Europe, 20 the benefits of society. ss likely to have a voice in nts’ immobility, instability, change, vocational o meet a society’s n be an important addition learning outcomes, ies that require them to enterpiece. They develop a in Colombia in the 1970s f Dewey, among others, themselves the system t is now a global model ighest achieving in the ause they don’t do much hers are drawn from the 93 percent of students PISA tests, although Finnish educators say that they don’t pay much attention to the tests beca testing themselves. They do not pay their teachers the top salaries in the world, but their teach top 10 percent of graduates, who then need to get a graduate degree in education. More than graduate from an academic or vocational high school, and 66 percent go on to college. From 1999 to 2012, 38 countries increased funding by 1 percentage point of national income. “ MDGs set the target for national education funding at 15 percent to 20 percent of national bud toward the goal was uneven. Sub-Saharan African countries allocated the largest median share percent; East Asian and Pacific countries allocated 17.5 percent. Ethiopia and Niger both exceed At the global median average of 13.7 percent reached in 2012, universal education cannot be a In 2015, the Education 2030 Agenda again asked countries to dedicate at least 4 percent to 6 pe percent to 20 percent of their public expenditures to education. Donor countries agreed to assi finance education by giving 0.7 percent of their income. 2020 global funding in education was U donations of US$ 18 billion. Although a record high in aid 43 donors including the United States aid to education and the overall global budget remained equivalent to 2018 and 2019. Educatio countries, as of 2023, have not recovered to pre-COVID levels, and the gap may increase to US$ lower middle-income countries, households still bear 39 percent of the education budget, comp high-income countries (World Bank, GEM, and UNESCO 2022). The GPE estimated that from 2018 to 2020 donor governments need to invest US$ 3.1 billion t budget allocation for education, and philanthropies and the private sector will need to increase contributions. This is to replenish the funding for education. After replenishment, $2 billion a ye to scale up and maintain education. Health, prosperity, and peace will depend increasingly on e Providing quality education calls for a variety of strategies, at international, national, and local l among governments and nongovernmental organization. The OECD (2010, 2017) proposed poli improving education that apply to developed and developing societies. The Finnish model provides extra money for schools with a disadvantaged population. In Espoo extra €82,000 to meet the financial requirements of extra aides, special materials, and so forth. oldest low-income housing project in Finland, the school receives an extra €47,000 euros each y discrimination money ensures that equality is the most important word in Finnish education. It teachers are paid somewhat above the average teacher scale because they have an extra year, study. The result of the extra money, time, and attention is that nearly 100 percent of the ninth Road go on to upper secondary school. Those who do not will go to one of the vocational schoo percent of Finnish students. School fees that parents pay may cover everything from uniforms, books, and other learning an teacher and administrator fees. These fees can add up to hundreds of dollars. The proposals lis measures. As the SDG for education states in target 4.1, education must be free. All barriers to education will never be equitable and will never provide children with the life chances to which ause they don’t do much hers are drawn from the 93 percent of students “Education for All” and the dgets by 2015. Progress e of their budgets at 18.4 ded the 20 percent mark. attained (UNESCO 2015b). ercent of their GDP or 15 ist poorer countries US$ 4.9 trillion, including s and UK decreased their on budgets in low income $ 200 billion. In low- to pared with 16 percent in to meet the 20 percent e their targeted ear is needed to continue education (GPE 2017). levels and coordination icy recommendations for o, a school received an. In Hedgehog Road, the year. This positive ts special education a 6th year, of university h graders in Hedgehog ols, attended by about 43 nd teaching supplies to sted here are stopgap cost must be removed or h they are entitled. School fees that parents pay may cover everything from uniforms, books, and other learning an teacher and administrator fees. These fees can add up to hundreds of dollars. The proposals lis measures. As the SDG for education states in target 4.1, education must be free. All barriers to education will never be equitable and will never provide children with the life chances to which Education fees and other costs continue to make education unaffordable for many. Household expenditures on education in sub-Saharan Africa were nearly 5 times a greater prop Europe and North America (UNESCO 2020). In Haiti, Kenya, the Philippines, and Uganda over 30 borrow to pay for education and in many low- and lower middle-income countries households fourths of the cost of education (UNESCO 2022c). Ugandan households bear 57 percent of the cost of education. In Benin (US$ 402 per child), Cha per child), Guinea, and Niger, education expenses run from 20 percent to 25 percent of GDP pe 30 percent in Togo. In most rich nations, it does not exceed 5 percent. In some countries, even expensive. In El Salvador, for example, it averages $680 per child (UNESCO 2017). In 12 African teaching materials ate up 56 percent of household budgets (UNESCO 2015b). in Kenya the cost of a uniform was about 2 percent of per capita GDP. In 2003, per capita GDP w uniform was about $17. To put this in perspective, in the United States in 2003, a uniform costi GDP would have been about $900. The test programs had measurable results. Students stayed longer, reduced their absences, reduced dropout rates, and among sixth-grade girls reduced ch Holla 2009). Bolsa Familia is one of the most well-known programs. Begun in Brazil in 2003, the program gav families in exchange for parents keeping their children in school and participating in preventive The program successfully kept children in school—the chances of a 15-year-old girl being in sch by 2013. The World Bank credits the program with increasing school attendance and retention, reducing child mortality, increasing prenatal medical visits, increasing immunization, and helpin program has been efficient, costing about.6 percent of GDP while helping millions of families. B other aid agencies, exported the program around the world to more than 40 countries by 2013 its successes, Bolsa Familia appears in danger. As of 2020, the number of people admitted drop nearly three quarters of a million people lag on the waiting list (Belágua 2020). PROGRESA, a program instituted in Mexico, provides 3 years of monthly cash grants to poor mo maintained an 85 percent school attendance rate. Grants equaled about 25 percent of the aver mothers. The program increased attendance in grades 1 through 8. Since primary education wa program adjusted to concentrate on the higher grades. This program expanded to 25 mostly m Hookworm, roundworm, whipworm, and schistosomiasis are particularly common among scho have serious health consequences such as anemia, protein malnutrition, and pain. Twice-yearly teachers in areas of high worm diseases improved school attendance by 8 percentage points. nd teaching supplies to sted here are stopgap cost must be removed or h they are entitled. portion of GDP than in 0 percent of households bear from half to three ad, Côte d’Ivoire ($637 er capita. It is more than primary school can be countries, learning and was US$ 850, so a ing 2 percent of per capita in school one half grade hildbearing (Kremer and ve subsidies to poor e health care programs. hool increased 21 percent , reducing child labor, ng slash poverty. The Brazil, in conjunction with 3 (Wetzel 2013). Despite pped dramatically, and others whose children rage income for poor as near universal, the middle-income countries. ool-age children. They y treatments dispensed by The schools of Finland have been a curiosity around the world. Their students are among the highest achieving in the PISA tests, although Finnish educators say that they don’t pay much attention to the tests because they don’t do much testing themselves. They do not pay their teachers the top salaries in the world, but their teachers are drawn from the top 10 percent of graduates, who then need to get a graduate degree in education. More than 93 percent of students graduate from an academic or vocational high school, and 66 percent go on to college. From 1999 to 2012, 38 countries increased funding by 1 percentage point of national income. “Education for All” and the MDGs set the target for national education funding at 15 percent to 20 percent of national budgets by 2015. Progress toward the goal was uneven. Sub-Saharan African countries allocated the largest median share of their budgets at 18.4 percent; East Asian and Pacific countries allocated 17.5 percent. Ethiopia and Niger both exceeded the 20 percent mark. At the global median average of 13.7 percent reached in 2012, universal education cannot be attained (UNESCO 2015b). In 2015, the Education 2030 Agenda again asked countries to dedicate at least 4 percent to 6 percent of their GDP or 15 percent to 20 percent of their public expenditures to education. Donor countries agreed to assist poorer countries finance education by giving 0.7 percent of their income. 2020 global funding in education was US$ 4.9 trillion, including donations of US$ 18 billion. Although a record high in aid 43 donors including the United States and UK decreased their aid to education and the overall global budget remained equivalent to 2018 and 2019. Education budgets in low income countries, as of 2023, have not recovered to pre-COVID levels, and the gap may increase to US$ 200 billion. In low- to lower middle-income countries, households still bear 39 percent of the education budget, compared with 16 percent in high-income countries (World Bank, GEM, and UNESCO 2022). The GPE estimated that from 2018 to 2020 donor governments need to invest US$ 3.1 billion to meet the 20 percent budget allocation for education, and philanthropies and the private sector will need to increase their targeted contributions. This is to replenish the funding for education. After replenishment, $2 billion a year is needed to continue to scale up and maintain education. Health, prosperity, and peace will depend increasingly on education (GPE 2017). Providing quality education calls for a variety of strategies, at international, national, and local levels and coordination among governments and nongovernmental organization. The OECD (2010, 2017) proposed policy recommendations for improving education that apply to developed and developing societies. and local levels and coordination among governments and nongovernmental organization. The OECD (2010, 2017) proposed policy recommendations for improving education that apply to developed and developing societies. The Finnish model provides extra money for schools with a disadvantaged population. In Espoo, a school received an extra €82,000 to meet the financial requirements of extra aides, special materials, and so forth. In Hedgehog Road, the oldest low-income housing project in Finland, the school receives an extra €47,000 euros each year. This positive discrimination money ensures that equality is the most important word in Finnish education. Its special education teachers are paid somewhat above the average teacher scale because they have an extra year, a 6th year, of university study. The result of the extra money, time, and attention is that nearly 100 percent of the ninth graders in Hedgehog Road go on to upper secondary school. Those who do not will go to one of the vocational schools, attended by about 43 percent of Finnish students. School fees that parents pay may cover everything from uniforms, books, and other learning and teaching supplies to teacher and administrator fees. These fees can add up to hundreds of dollars. The proposals listed here are stopgap measures. As the SDG for education states in target 4.1, education must be free. All barriers to cost must be removed or education will never be equitable and will never provide children with the life chances to which they are entitled. Education fees and other costs continue to make education unaffordable for many. Household expenditures on education in sub-Saharan Africa were nearly 5 times a greater proportion of GDP than in Europe and North America (UNESCO 2020). In Haiti, Kenya, the Philippines, and Uganda over 30 percent of households borrow to pay for education and in many low- and lower middle-income countries households bear from half to three fourths of the cost of education (UNESCO 2022c). Ugandan households bear 57 percent of the cost of education. In Benin (US$ 402 per child), Chad, Côte d’Ivoire ($637 per child), Guinea, and Niger, education expenses run from 20 percent to 25 percent of GDP per capita. It is more than 30 percent in Togo. In most rich nations, it does not exceed 5 percent. In some countries, even primary school can be expensive. In El Salvador, for example, it averages $680 per child (UNESCO 2017). In 12 African countries, learning and teaching materials ate up 56 percent of household budgets (UNESCO 2015b). in Kenya the cost of a uniform was about 2 percent of per capita GDP. In 2003, per capita GDP was US$ 850, so a uniform was about $17. To put this in perspective, in the United States in 2003, a uniform costing 2 percent of per capita GDP would have been about $900. The test programs had measurable results. Students stayed in percent of household budgets (UNESCO 2015b). in Kenya the cost of a uniform was about 2 percent of per capita GDP. In 2003, per capita GDP was US$ 850, so a uniform was about $17. To put this in perspective, in the United States in 2003, a uniform costing 2 percent of per capita GDP would have been about $900. The test programs had measurable results. Students stayed in school one half grade longer, reduced their absences, reduced dropout rates, and among sixth-grade girls reduced childbearing (Kremer and Holla 2009). Bolsa Familia is one of the most well-known programs. Begun in Brazil in 2003, the program gave subsidies to poor families in exchange for parents keeping their children in school and participating in preventive health care programs. The program successfully kept children in school—the chances of a 15-year-old girl being in school increased 21 percent by 2013. The World Bank credits the program with increasing school attendance and retention, reducing child labor, reducing child mortality, increasing prenatal medical visits, increasing immunization, and helping slash poverty. The program has been efficient, costing about.6 percent of GDP while helping millions of families. Brazil, in conjunction with other aid agencies, exported the program around the world to more than 40 countries by 2013 (Wetzel 2013). Despite its successes, Bolsa Familia appears in danger. As of 2020, the number of people admitted dropped dramatically, and nearly three quarters of a million people lag on the waiting list (Belágua 2020). PROGRESA, a program instituted in Mexico, provides 3 years of monthly cash grants to poor mothers whose children maintained an 85 percent school attendance rate. Grants equaled about 25 percent of the average income for poor mothers. The program increased attendance in grades 1 through 8. Since primary education was near universal, the program adjusted to concentrate on the higher grades. This program expanded to 25 mostly middle-income countries. Hookworm, roundworm, whipworm, and schistosomiasis are particularly common among school-age children. They have serious health consequences such as anemia, protein malnutrition, and pain. Twice-yearly treatments dispensed by teachers in areas of high worm diseases improved school attendance by 8 percentage points. By 2030, it will require more than 1.5 million more teachers to attain universal primary education and more than 5 million more for lower secondary education If the current trend holds, not all these teachers will be qualified. In the United States in 2015, the pupil-to-teacher ratio, overall, in public schools was 16 to 1 and in private schools was about 12 to 1 (McFarland et al. 2017). In many developing societies, it is much higher—in the 30, 40, and 50 to 1 range.  By 2030, it will require more than 1.5 million more teachers to attain universal primary education and more than 5 million more for lower secondary education If the current trend holds, not all these teachers will be qualified. In the United States in 2015, the pupil-to-teacher ratio, overall, in public schools was 16 to 1 and in private schools was about 12 to 1 (McFarland et al. 2017). In many developing societies, it is much higher—in the 30, 40, and 50 to 1 range. By 2030, it will require more than 1.5 million more teachers to attain universal primary education and more than 5 million more for lower secondary education If the current trend holds, not all these teachers will be qualified. In the United States in 2015, the pupil-to-teacher ratio, overall, in public schools was 16 to 1 and in private schools was about 12 to 1 (McFarland et al. 2017). In many developing societies, it is much higher—in the 30, 40, and 50 to 1 range. As it does for other occupations, the Philippines specifically trains teachers to be desirable for overseas employment. More than 250 teachers came from the Philippines on J-1 work visas. The National Education Association reported a “five alarm crisis” for the 2021–2022 school year, only 0.57 hires were made for every one teacher sought (Jotkoff 2022). Many districts report shortages of science and math teachers (Pyle et al. 2021). Secondary math teacher shortage was reported by 46 percent of U.S. districts and secondary science shortage in 26 percent of districts (Buttner 2021). The United States needs another 15,000–23,000 physics teachers if 80 percent to 90 percent of students were to take physics (Physics Today 2022). The last recent Schools and Staffing Survey (2011–2012) showed that only 70 percent of public high school mathematics teachers had a major in mathematics, and only 46 percent of physical science teachers had a major in physical science (Hill, Sterns, and Owens 2015). A New York Times survey (Harris 2022) of over 1,000 teachers, even before the pandemic disrupted education globally, showed many schools had been neglected and teachers vilified. England faces a similar dilemma in teacher shortages. In 2018, only 44 percent of mathematics teachers held mathematics degrees (Sibieta 2021). The Department for Education hoped to train 1,055 physics teachers for the 2015–2016 school year but got only 739. It also fell short on biology and chemistry teachers (Bawden 2016). School choice programs vary widely across countries. OECD conducted an extensive study of the effects of school choice on equity and achievement in 71 countries (OECD and partner countries) using 2000 and 2015 PISA scores to gauge student achievement. Despite the wide variation of programs across countries, one conclusion is striking: Sorting students by ability or social status has detrimental effects on disadvantaged students while not affecting the achievement of advantaged students School choice programs vary widely across countries. OECD conducted an extensive study of the effects of school choice on equity and achievement in 71 countries (OECD and partner countries) using 2000 and 2015 PISA scores to gauge student achievement. Despite the wide variation of programs across countries, one conclusion is striking: Sorting students by ability or social status has detrimental effects on disadvantaged students while not affecting the achievement of advantaged students (OECD 2019). The schools may receive some assistance from public schools, such as in the United States where some states provide transportation, books, and special services such as speech and hearing specialists. Looking just at 15 year olds, the OECD study found that 4 percent of students were enrolled in such schools at the time of PISA 2015 testing. In the United States and Italy, about 70 percent of the private school students were in religious schools. In Austria and Denmark, all were in schools run by not-for- profits. In Turkey, 70 percent were in for-profit private schools (OECD 2019). Private government dependent schools, enrolling about 12 percent of 15 year olds in OECD countries are financed by the government but run by other entities—religious, not-for-profit organizations, and for-profit organizations. In Ireland for example, all children attending such schools are in religious schools; in Austria, they are in other not-for-profits. Across OECD countries, privately managed—government dependent or independent—schools receive 58 percent of their school funding from the government. The range is from under 1 percent in the United States, the UK, Greece, and Mexico (clearly independent) to almost 100 percent in Sweden, Finland, the Netherlands (clearly dependent) (OECD 2019). In the United States, charters grew from 5,300 to 7,800 and enrollment grew from nearly 1.8 million to almost 3.7 million students from 2010 to 2020 (NCES 2023). The majority of students enrolled in charters in the United States are in standalone elementary (K–6, 40.8 percent) and middle schools (6–8, 16.6 percent). Another 37.1 percent are enrolled in multilevel schools, which could be K–8, 6–12, K–12. It is safe to assume that most of these children are of elementary and middle school age. Only 5.6 percent of students are high school (9–12) charters. This decreased 7 percent from 2013 to 2023. The most extensive studies are those by Stanford’s Center for Research on Education Outcomes (CREDO). From the first study in 2009 to the most recent in 2023, charter school outcomes improved. In the 2009 study, charter school students lost significant growth in comparison to public school students. The 2023 study found that students gained 6 days of learning in math and 16 in reading, showing that some charter schools improved over time.