Chapter 4 Social Emotional & Moral Development PDF

# Understanding Our Self ## Key Questions - What is the difference between self-esteem, self-concept and self-efficacy? - What are the self and identity challenges faced by school-aged children? - What is the teacher's role in fostering a healthy sense of self? - How do we develop a sense of right...

# Understanding Our Self ## Key Questions - What is the difference between self-esteem, self-concept and self-efficacy? - What are the self and identity challenges faced by school-aged children? - What is the teacher's role in fostering a healthy sense of self? - How do we develop a sense of right and wrong? - How is emotional competence related to understanding others? - How do peer acceptance and friendship contribute to development? ## Jamie, Lia and Caleb - Jamie is four years old and is starting school next year. - Lia is 11 and believes she is a pretty good swimmer. She tries to do the right thing. - Caleb is 15 and is good at sports and video games. He thinks he is OK as a person. ## Introduction This chapter introduces three major areas in the study of personal development: - Development of our concepts of self - Development of moral, emotional, and social understanding - Formation of relationships ## Understanding Our Self - Our sense of self is closely related to our cognitive development. - We are made up of many 'selves' and dimensions. - These self dimensions develop and become more complex over time as we mature and interact with our environment. ### Self-Concept - Refers to the knowledge, ideas, attitudes and beliefs we have about ourselves. - Is formed through interaction with our environment and the people in it. ### Social Comparison - Is a cognitive process of comparing our abilities to others or to social standards. ### Multidimensional Self-Concept - Self-concept can be measured and distinguished in different areas of academic and social abilities. - This is evident when we look at Caleb's self-report. He reports a high or very positive sense of self in science and technology but does not feel so sure of his ability in English and specifically public speaking. ## Understanding Others - Moral development is explored along with emotional development - specifically our ability to understand other people because of these developmental processes. ### Moral Development - Children encounter situations that extend and challenge their thinking about what is right and wrong. - Morality is a contested and ill-defined term. ### Theories of Moral Development & Reasoning - Theories of moral development and reasoning in children and young people have been reflected in several psychology approaches and theories over the last century. - Today, it is more widely accepted that development occurs through a combination of genetic, cognitive, neurological, behavioral and environmental processes. #### The Theories of Jean Piaget (1932) and Lawrence Kohlberg (1963) - They proposed that children 'construct' ideas about right and wrong and this ability to engage in moral reasoning shapes the development of their thinking about moral issues. #### Kohlberg and the Heinz Dilemma - Kohlberg presented research participants with dilemmas such as the following 'Heinz dilemma'. - He was not actually interested in their answer to the question, but in their reasoning and explanation for their answer. ##### Should Heinz have done that? Why or why not? - From the analysis of responses to these type of dilemmas Piaget proposed two levels of moral reasoning in children and Kohlberg eventually developed three levels with six stages of moral reasoning abilities. - This developmental approach acknowledged that moving from one level or stage to the next requires a combination of cognitive development and a range of social experiences and social interactions. ## Moral Development by Stage - In the earliest stages of moral reasoning both Piaget and Kohlberg held the view that younger children and those in the lowest levels of moral reasoning engaged in a form of 'heteronomous morality'. - This stage is labelled 'preconventional morality'. #### Preconventional Morality - This involves children reasoning in terms of what will benefit them. #### Conventional Morality - This involves older children and adolescents starting to see themselves as conventional members of society and helping those close to them. #### Postconventional Morality - This involves the person, typically an adult and involves reasoning about what is best for the wider society and on ways of promoting justice. ## Strengths and Limitations of the Stage Approach to Moral Development - Piaget's and Kohlberg's work provided us with a deeper understanding of how moral reasoning progresses through cognitive stages. - Kohlberg's theory places moral reasoning in a sociocultural context, emphasising that we are influenced by and, in turn, influence those around us by our actions. ### Problems with Stages - Stage-based theories can be problematic. - Kohlberg's stages are not self-contained. ### Moral Reasoning Versus Moral Behaviour - An important assumption of cognitive approaches is the belief that our reasoning or understanding is a driving force for our behaviour. - People may slip between stages as the circumstances dictate. ### Gender and Age Considerations - Kohlberg's initial research was conducted exclusively with males aged 10 to 16 years of age. - Gilligan argued that girls reason in a different way (probably because they are socialised into the female gender role). - Later studies have shown that both males and females reason in similar/different ways about the Kohlbergian dilemmas. ### Cultural Considerations - Kohlberg argued that his theory holds true across cultures. - However, research indicates that there is likely to be variation in moral reasoning and moral behaviours within these cultures as well as between cultures. ### Think About - Kohlberg argued for a connection between emotional development and moral reasoning. Can you explain some ways that emotion may be linked to moral reasoning? ## Further Perspectives on Moral Development - There are ongoing debates about what is of value in moral terms, whether there is a universal core set of values that binds individuals across cultures, and whether or not educators play a role in moral development. ### Gilligan’s Theory of Feminine Moral Reasoning - Notes that the primarily male orientation of Kohlberg's theory centres concerns about justice, rules and rights as reasons for acting morally. - Contended that, because males and females reason differently about moral dilemmas, females tend to score lower than males on Kohlberg's scoring system. ### Eisenberg’s Theory of Prosocial Moral Reasoning - Is concerned with reasoning about moral dilemmas in situations where laws or rules do not apply. - Like other stage-based theories, her model shows children moving from more egocentric or 'hedonistic' stages, to having a greater concern for others. ### Bandura’s Theory of Moral Agency and Disengagement - Employing his social-cognitive theory, Albert Bandura strongly believes that moral agency is the linking concept between moral behaviour and moral reasoning. #### Moral Agency - Describes the use of self-regulatory processes to mediate the link between moral reasoning and moral behaviour. #### Moral Disengagement - This theory proposes that humans self-activate or self-regulate the application of these moral standards and, most critically, are also capable of deactivating or disengaging from these same moral standards. ## Moral Development in Education - One of the other questions raised by the study of moral development concerns the role of school education in teaching students about moral behaviour. ### Think About - What are your views about moral values in education? Do you agree that ethical or spiritual values should form part of the school curriculum? - What kinds of values do you remember learning about at school? How will these affect your own teaching? ## A Sense of Identity - Another 'self'-related concept is the notion of identity. - Two prominent psychological theories that have shaped our view of child and adolescent 'identity' today are those of Erik Erikson and James Marcia. ### Erikson - Proposed a series of eight psychosocial development stages across the lifespan in which our identity and sense of worth may be developed or crushed. - During these stages, our identity development is theorised to be dependent on how we resolve a psychosocial crisis. ### Marcia - Focused specifically on adolescent development, proposing four stages of identity development during adolescence. - During these turning points, we experience a temporary state of conflict and disequilibrium that must be resolved before we may move to the next stage of identity development. ### Stages of Identity Development in the School Years - Each of the theories proposes a number of stages that are named according to the psychosocial conflict or 'crisis' the young person faces. - In each stage, the child's relationship with significant others is clearly implicated in how they resolve the crisis. #### The Preschool and Kindergarten Years - In the 'initiative versus guilt' stage, young children may attempt to show initiative by trying adult activities. - Encouraging children to take the initiative and to think for themselves is one of the first steps in learning that their actions lead to consequences. #### The Primary School Years - During Stage 4, most children are at school and industriously engaged in activities related to acquiring basic skills. - The dominant task for children at this stage is to appreciate the value of industry and productive activities while avoiding an excessive sense of inferiority. - Children learn to live from the land and learning important cultural information. #### The High School Years - In Erikson's theory the primary task during adolescence is to develop an identity, which lays the foundation for adulthood. - 'Identity' versus 'role confusion' occurs when adolescents have difficulty deciding which roles to play in life, which may stem from uncertainty about their place in the world. - The avoidance of any commitment can cause role confusion. ## Strengths and Limitations of Identity Theories - All theories face critique and interrogation. - Identity theories have a significant role to play in much western thinking and are reflected in many disciplines of western thought. ### A Stage Theory - Erikson and Marcia propose a stage approach that is helpful because it provides a framework for interpreting psychosocial development across the lifespan. - However, there are a number of limitations. ### The Role of Society and Culture in Self and Identity - It has been suggested that theories developed in one cultural context may not have applicability in other cultural contexts. - Scholars have argued that some of these concepts and these stages do not apply across cultures and across historical contexts. ## Understanding Others - So far, we have learnt that the development of our self-understanding is a complex process influenced by many factors, including those of a social and cultural nature. - We now consider the interaction between self-understanding and our understanding of other people - moral development. ### Moral Development - Children encounter situations that extend and challenge their thinking about what is right and wrong. ### Theories of Moral Development & Reasoning - Theories of moral development and reasoning in children and young people have been reflected in several psychology approaches and theories over the last century. #### Theories of Jean Piaget (1932) and Lawrence Kohlberg (1963) - They proposed that children 'construct' ideas about right and wrong and this ability to engage in moral reasoning shapes the development of their thinking about moral issues. #### Kohlberg and the Heinz Dilemma - Kohlberg presented research participants with dilemmas such as the following 'Heinz dilemma'. - He was not actually interested in their answer to the question, but in their reasoning and explanation for their answer. ##### Should Heinz have done that? Why or why not? - From the analysis of responses to these type of dilemmas Piaget proposed two levels of moral reasoning in children and Kohlberg eventually developed three levels with six stages of moral reasoning abilities. - This developmental approach acknowledged that moving from one level or stage to the next requires a combination of cognitive development and a range of social experiences and social interactions. ## Moral Development by Stage - In the earliest stages of moral reasoning both Piaget and Kohlberg held the view that younger children and those in the lowest levels of moral reasoning engaged in a form of 'heteronomous morality'. - This stage is labelled 'preconventional morality'. #### Preconventional Morality - This involves children reasoning in terms of what will benefit them. #### Conventional Morality - This involves older children and adolescents starting to see themselves as conventional members of society and helping those close to them. #### Postconventional Morality - This involves the person, typically an adult and involves reasoning about what is best for the wider society and on ways of promoting justice. ## Strengths and Limitations of the Stage Approach to Moral Development - Piaget's and Kohlberg's work provided us with a deeper understanding of how moral reasoning progresses through cognitive stages. - Kohlberg's theory places moral reasoning in a sociocultural context, emphasising that we are influenced by and, in turn, influence those around us by our actions. ### Problems with Stages - Stage-based theories can be problematic. - Kohlberg's stages are not self-contained. ### Moral Reasoning Versus Moral Behaviour - An important assumption of cognitive approaches is the belief that our reasoning or understanding is a driving force for our behaviour. - People may slip between stages as the circumstances dictate. ### Gender and Age Considerations - Kohlberg's initial research was conducted exclusively with males aged 10 to 16 years of age. - Gilligan argued that girls reason in a different way (probably because they are socialised into the female gender role). - Later studies have shown that both males and females reason in similar/different ways about the Kohlbergian dilemmas. ### Cultural Considerations - Kohlberg argued that his theory holds true across cultures. - However, research indicates that there is likely to be variation in moral reasoning and moral behaviours within these cultures as well as between cultures. ### Think About - Kohlberg argued for a connection between emotional development and moral reasoning. Can you explain some ways that emotion may be linked to moral reasoning? ## Further Perspectives on Moral Development - There are ongoing debates about what is of value in moral terms, whether there is a universal core set of values that binds individuals across cultures, and whether or not educators play a role in moral development. ### Gilligan’s Theory of Feminine Moral Reasoning - Notes that the primarily male orientation of Kohlberg's theory centres concerns about justice, rules and rights as reasons for acting morally. - Contended that, because males and females reason differently about moral dilemmas, females tend to score lower than males on Kohlberg's scoring system. ### Eisenberg’s Theory of Prosocial Moral Reasoning - Is concerned with reasoning about moral dilemmas in situations where laws or rules do not apply. - Like other stage-based theories, her model shows children moving from more egocentric or 'hedonistic' stages, to having a greater concern for others. ### Bandura’s Theory of Moral Agency and Disengagement - Employing his social-cognitive theory, Albert Bandura strongly believes that moral agency is the linking concept between moral behaviour and moral reasoning. #### Moral Agency - Describes the use of self-regulatory processes to mediate the link between moral reasoning and moral behaviour. #### Moral Disengagement - This theory proposes that humans self-activate or self-regulate the application of these moral standards and, most critically, are also capable of deactivating or disengaging from these same moral standards. ## Moral Development in Education - One of the other questions raised by the study of moral development concerns the role of school education in teaching students about moral behaviour. ### Think About - What are your views about moral values in education? Do you agree that ethical or spiritual values should form part of the school curriculum? - What kinds of values do you remember learning about at school? How will these affect your own teaching? ## A Sense of Identity - Another 'self'-related concept is the notion of identity. - Two prominent psychological theories that have shaped our view of child and adolescent 'identity' today are those of Erik Erikson and James Marcia. ### Erikson - Proposed a series of eight psychosocial development stages across the lifespan in which our identity and sense of worth may be developed or crushed. - During these stages, our identity development is theorised to be dependent on how we resolve a psychosocial crisis. ### Marcia - Focused specifically on adolescent development, proposing four stages of identity development during adolescence. - During these turning points, we experience a temporary state of conflict and disequilibrium that must be resolved before we may move to the next stage of identity development. ### Stages of Identity Development in the School Years - Each of the theories proposes a number of stages that are named according to the psychosocial conflict or 'crisis' the young person faces. - In each stage, the child's relationship with significant others is clearly implicated in how they resolve the crisis. #### The Preschool and Kindergarten Years - In the 'initiative versus guilt' stage, young children may attempt to show initiative by trying adult activities. - Encouraging children to take the initiative and to think for themselves is one of the first steps in learning that their actions lead to consequences. #### The Primary School Years - During Stage 4, most children are at school and industriously engaged in activities related to acquiring basic skills. - The dominant task for children at this stage is to appreciate the value of industry and productive activities while avoiding an excessive sense of inferiority. - Children learn to live from the land and learning important cultural information. #### The High School Years - In Erikson's theory the primary task during adolescence is to develop an identity, which lays the foundation for adulthood. - 'Identity' versus 'role confusion' occurs when adolescents have difficulty deciding which roles to play in life, which may stem from uncertainty about their place in the world. - The avoidance of any commitment can cause role confusion. ## Strengths and Limitations of Identity Theories - All theories face critique and interrogation. - Identity theories have a significant role to play in much western thinking and are reflected in many disciplines of western thought. ### A Stage Theory - Erikson and Marcia propose a stage approach that is helpful because it provides a framework for interpreting psychosocial development across the lifespan. - However, there are a number of limitations. ### The Role of Society and Culture in Self and Identity - It has been suggested that theories developed in one cultural context may not have applicability in other cultural contexts. - Scholars have argued that some of these concepts and these stages do not apply across cultures and across historical contexts. ## Understanding Others - So far, we have learnt that the development of our self-understanding is a complex process influenced by many factors, including those of a social and cultural nature. - We now consider the interaction between self-understanding and our understanding of other people - moral development. ### Moral Development - Children encounter situations that extend and challenge their thinking about what is right and wrong. ### Theories of Moral Development & Reasoning - Theories of moral development and reasoning in children and young people have been reflected in several psychology approaches and theories over the last century. #### The Theories of Jean Piaget (1932) and Lawrence Kohlberg (1963) - They proposed that children 'construct' ideas about right and wrong and this ability to engage in moral reasoning shapes the development of their thinking about moral issues. #### Kohlberg and the Heinz Dilemma - Kohlberg presented research participants with dilemmas such as the following 'Heinz dilemma'. - He was not actually interested in their answer to the question, but in their reasoning and explanation for their answer. ##### Should Heinz have done that? Why or why not? - From the analysis of responses to these type of dilemmas Piaget proposed two levels of moral reasoning in children and Kohlberg eventually developed three levels with six stages of moral reasoning abilities. - This developmental approach acknowledged that moving from one level or stage to the next requires a combination of cognitive development and a range of social experiences and social interactions. ## Moral Development by Stage - In the earliest stages of moral reasoning both Piaget and Kohlberg held the view that younger children and those in the lowest levels of moral reasoning engaged in a form of 'heteronomous morality'. - This stage is labelled 'preconventional morality'. #### Preconventional Morality - This involves children reasoning in terms of what will benefit them. #### Conventional Morality - This involves older children and adolescents starting to see themselves as conventional members of society and helping those close to them. #### Postconventional Morality - This involves the person, typically an adult and involves reasoning about what is best for the wider society and on ways of promoting justice. ## Strengths and Limitations of the Stage Approach to Moral Development - Piaget's and Kohlberg's work provided us with a deeper understanding of how moral reasoning progresses through cognitive stages. - Kohlberg's theory places moral reasoning in a sociocultural context, emphasising that we are influenced by and, in turn, influence those around us by our actions. ### Problems with Stages - Stage-based theories can be problematic. - Kohlberg's stages are not self-contained. ### Moral Reasoning Versus Moral Behaviour - An important assumption of cognitive approaches is the belief that our reasoning or understanding is a driving force for our behaviour. - People may slip between stages as the circumstances dictate. ### Gender and Age Considerations - Kohlberg's initial research was conducted exclusively with males aged 10 to 16 years of age. - Gilligan argued that girls reason in a different way (probably because they are socialised into the female gender role). - Later studies have shown that both males and females reason in similar/different ways about the Kohlbergian dilemmas. ### Cultural Considerations - Kohlberg argued that his theory holds true across cultures. - However, research indicates that there is likely to be variation in moral reasoning and moral behaviours within these cultures as well as between cultures. ### Think About - Kohlberg argued for a connection between emotional development and moral reasoning. Can you explain some ways that emotion may be linked to moral reasoning? ## Further Perspectives on Moral Development - There are ongoing debates about what is of value in moral terms, whether there is a universal core set of values that binds individuals across cultures, and whether or not educators play a role in moral development. ### Gilligan’s Theory of Feminine Moral Reasoning - Notes that the primarily male orientation of Kohlberg's theory centres concerns about justice, rules and rights as reasons for acting morally. - Contended that, because males and females reason differently about moral dilemmas, females tend to score lower than males on Kohlberg's scoring system. ### Eisenberg’s Theory of Prosocial Moral Reasoning - Is concerned with reasoning about moral dilemmas in situations where laws or rules do not apply. - Like other stage-based theories, her model shows children moving from more egocentric or 'hedonistic' stages, to having a greater concern for others. ### Bandura’s Theory of Moral Agency and Disengagement - Employing his social-cognitive theory, Albert Bandura strongly believes that moral agency is the linking concept between moral behaviour and moral reasoning. #### Moral Agency - Describes the use of self-regulatory processes to mediate the link between moral reasoning and moral behaviour. #### Moral Disengagement - This theory proposes that humans self-activate or self-regulate the application of these moral standards and, most critically, are also capable of deactivating or disengaging from these same moral standards. ## Moral Development in Education - One of the other questions raised by the study of moral development concerns the role of school education in teaching students about moral behaviour. ### Think About - What are your views about moral values in education? Do you agree that ethical or spiritual values should form part of the school curriculum? - What kinds of values do you remember learning about at school? How will these affect your own teaching? ## A Sense of Identity - Another 'self'-related concept is the notion of identity. - Two prominent psychological theories that have shaped our view of child and adolescent 'identity' today are those of Erik Erikson and James Marcia. ### Erikson - Proposed a series of eight psychosocial development stages across the lifespan in which our identity and sense of worth may be developed or crushed. - During these stages, our identity development is theorised to be dependent on how we resolve a psychosocial crisis. ### Marcia - Focused specifically on adolescent development, proposing four stages of identity development during adolescence. - During these turning points, we experience a temporary state of conflict and disequilibrium that must be resolved before we may move to the next stage of identity development. ### Stages of Identity Development in the School Years - Each of the theories proposes a number of stages that are named according to the psychosocial conflict or 'crisis' the young person faces. - In each stage, the child's relationship with significant others is clearly implicated in how they resolve the crisis. #### The Preschool and Kindergarten Years - In the 'initiative versus guilt' stage, young children may attempt to show initiative by trying adult activities. - Encouraging children to take the initiative and to think for themselves is one of the first steps in learning that their actions lead to consequences. #### The Primary School Years - During Stage 4, most children are at school and industriously engaged in activities related to acquiring basic skills. - The dominant task for children at this stage is to appreciate the value of industry and productive activities while avoiding an excessive sense of inferiority. - Children learn to live from the land and learning important cultural information. #### The High School Years - In Erikson's theory the primary task during adolescence is to develop an identity, which lays the foundation for adulthood. - 'Identity' versus 'role confusion' occurs when adolescents have difficulty deciding which roles to play in life, which may stem from uncertainty about their place in the world. - The avoidance of any commitment can cause role confusion. ## Strengths and Limitations of Identity Theories - All theories face critique and interrogation. - Identity theories have a significant role to play in much western thinking and are reflected in many disciplines of western thought. ### A Stage Theory - Erikson and Marcia propose a stage approach that is helpful because it provides a framework for interpreting psychosocial development across the lifespan. - However, there are a number of limitations. ### The Role of Society and Culture in Self and Identity - It has been suggested that theories developed in one cultural context may not have applicability in other cultural contexts. - Scholars have argued that some of these concepts and these stages do not apply across cultures and across historical contexts. ## Understanding Others - So far, we have learnt that the development of our self-understanding is a complex process influenced by many factors, including those of a social and cultural nature. - We now consider the interaction between self-understanding and our understanding of other people - moral development. ### Moral Development - Children encounter situations that extend and challenge their thinking about what is right and wrong. ### Theories of Moral Development & Reasoning - Theories of moral development and reasoning in children and young people have been reflected in several psychology approaches and theories over the last century. #### The Theories of Jean Piaget (1932) and Lawrence Kohlberg (1963) - They proposed that children 'construct' ideas about right and wrong and this ability to engage in moral reasoning shapes the development of their thinking about moral issues. #### Kohlberg and the Heinz Dilemma - Kohlberg presented research participants with dilemmas such as the following 'Heinz dilemma'. - He was not actually interested in their answer to the question, but in their reasoning and explanation for their answer. ##### Should Heinz have done that? Why or why not? - From the analysis of responses to these type of dilemmas Piaget proposed two levels of moral reasoning in children and Kohlberg eventually developed three levels with six stages of moral reasoning abilities. - This developmental approach acknowledged that moving from one level or stage to the next requires a combination of cognitive development and a range of social experiences and social interactions. ## Moral Development by Stage - In the earliest stages of moral reasoning both Piaget and Kohlberg held the view that younger children and those in the lowest levels of moral reasoning engaged in a form of 'heteronomous morality'. - This stage is labelled 'preconventional morality'. #### Preconventional Morality - This involves children reasoning in terms of what will benefit them. #### Conventional Morality - This involves older children and adolescents starting to see themselves as conventional members of society and helping those close to them. #### Postconventional Morality - This involves the person, typically an adult and involves reasoning about what is best for the wider society and on ways of promoting justice. ## Strengths and Limitations of the Stage Approach to Moral Development - Piaget's and Kohlberg's work provided us with a deeper understanding of how moral reasoning progresses through cognitive stages. - Kohlberg's theory places moral reasoning in a sociocultural context, emphasising that we are influenced by and, in turn, influence those around us by our actions. ### Problems with Stages - Stage-based theories can be problematic. - Kohlberg's stages are not self-contained. ### Moral Reasoning Versus Moral Behaviour - An important assumption of cognitive approaches is the belief that our reasoning or understanding is a driving force for our behaviour. - People may slip between stages as the circumstances dictate. ### Gender and Age Considerations - Kohlberg's initial research was conducted exclusively with males aged 10 to 16 years of age. - Gilligan argued that girls reason in a different way (probably because they are socialised into the female gender role). - Later studies have shown that both males and females reason in similar/different ways about the Kohlbergian dilemmas. ### Cultural Considerations - Kohlberg argued that his theory holds true across cultures. - However, research indicates that there is likely to be variation in moral reasoning and moral behaviours within these cultures as well as between cultures. ### Think About - Kohlberg argued for a connection between emotional development and moral reasoning. Can you explain some ways that emotion may be linked to moral reasoning? ## Further Perspectives on Moral Development - There are ongoing debates about what is of value in moral terms, whether there is a universal core set of values that binds individuals across cultures, and whether or not educators play a role in moral development. ### Gilligan’s Theory of Feminine Moral Reasoning - Notes that the primarily male orientation of Kohlberg's theory centres concerns about justice, rules and rights as reasons for acting morally. - Contended that, because males and females reason differently about moral dilemmas, females tend to score lower than males on Kohlberg's scoring system. ### Eisenberg’s Theory of Prosocial Moral Reasoning - Is concerned with reasoning about moral dilemmas in situations where laws or rules do not apply. - Like other stage-based theories, her model shows children moving from more egocentric or 'hedonistic' stages, to having a greater concern for others. ### Bandura’s Theory of Moral Agency and Disengagement - Employing his social-cognitive theory, Albert Bandura strongly believes that moral agency is the linking concept between moral behaviour and moral reasoning. #### Moral Agency - Describes the use of self-regulatory processes to mediate the link between moral reasoning and moral behaviour. #### Moral Disengagement - This theory proposes that humans self-activate or self-regulate the application of these moral standards and, most critically, are also capable of deactivating or disengaging from these same moral standards. ## Moral Development in Education - One of the other questions raised by the study of moral development concerns the role of school education in teaching students about moral behaviour. ### Think About - What are your views about moral values in education? Do you agree that ethical or spiritual values should form part of the school curriculum? - What kinds of values do you remember learning about at school? How will these affect your own teaching? ## A Sense of Identity - Another 'self'-related concept is the notion of identity. - Two prominent psychological theories that have shaped our view of child and adolescent 'identity' today are those of Erik Erikson and James Marcia. ### Erikson - Proposed a series of eight psychosocial development stages across the lifespan in which our identity and sense of worth may be developed or crushed. - During these stages, our identity development is theorised to be dependent on how we resolve a psychosocial crisis. ### Marcia - Focused specifically on adolescent development, proposing four stages of identity development during adolescence. - During these turning points, we experience a temporary state of conflict and disequilibrium that must be resolved before we may move to the next stage of identity development. ### Stages of Identity Development in the School Years - Each of the theories proposes a number of stages that are named according to the psychosocial conflict or 'crisis' the young person faces. - In each stage, the child's relationship with significant others is clearly implicated in how they resolve the crisis. #### The Preschool and Kindergarten Years - In the 'initiative versus guilt' stage, young children may attempt to show initiative by trying adult activities. - Encouraging children to take the initiative and to think for themselves is one of the first steps in learning that their actions lead to consequences. #### The Primary School Years - During Stage 4, most children are at school and industriously engaged in activities related to acquiring basic skills. - The dominant task for children at this stage is to appreciate the value of industry and productive activities while avoiding an excessive sense of inferiority. - Children learn to live from the land and learning important cultural information. #### The High School Years - In Erikson's theory the primary task during adolescence is to develop an identity, which lays the foundation for adulthood. - 'Identity' versus 'role confusion' occurs when adolescents have difficulty deciding which roles to play in life, which may stem from uncertainty about their place in the world. - The avoidance of any commitment can cause role confusion. ## Strengths and Limitations of Identity Theories - All theories face critique and interrogation. - Identity theories have a significant role to play in much western thinking and are reflected in many disciplines of western thought. ### A Stage Theory - Erikson and Marcia propose a stage approach that is helpful because it provides a framework for interpreting psychosocial development across the lifespan. - However, there are a number of limitations. ### The Role of Society and Culture in Self and Identity - It has been suggested that theories developed in one cultural context may not have applicability in other cultural contexts. - Scholars have argued that some of these concepts and these stages do not apply across cultures and across historical contexts. ## Understanding Others - So far, we have learnt that the development of our self-understanding is a complex process influenced by many factors, including those of a social and cultural nature. - We now consider the interaction between self-understanding and our understanding of other people - moral development. ### Moral Development - Children encounter situations that extend and challenge their thinking about what is right and wrong. ### Theories of Moral Development & Reasoning - Theories of moral development and reasoning in children and young people have been reflected in several psychology approaches and theories over the last century. #### The Theories of Jean Piaget (1932) and Lawrence Kohlberg (1963) - They proposed that children 'construct' ideas about right and wrong and this ability to engage in moral reasoning shapes the development of their thinking about moral issues. #### Kohlberg and the Heinz Dilemma - Kohlberg presented research participants with dilemmas such as the following 'Heinz dilemma'. - He was not actually interested in their answer to the question, but in their reasoning and explanation for their answer. ##### Should Heinz have done that? Why or why not? - From the analysis of responses to these type of dilemmas Piaget proposed two levels of moral reasoning in children and Kohlberg eventually developed three levels with six stages of moral reasoning abilities. - This developmental approach acknowledged that moving from one level or stage to the next requires a combination of cognitive development and a range of social experiences and social interactions. ## Moral Development by Stage - In the earliest stages of moral reasoning both Piaget and Kohlberg held the view that younger children and those in the lowest levels of moral reasoning engaged in a form of 'heteronomous morality'. - This stage is labelled 'preconventional morality'. #### Preconventional Morality - This involves children reasoning in terms of what will benefit them. #### Conventional Morality - This involves older children and adolescents starting to see themselves as conventional members of society and helping those close to them. #### Postconventional Morality - This involves the person, typically an adult and involves reasoning about what is best for the wider society and on ways of promoting justice. ## Strengths and Limitations of the Stage Approach to Moral Development - Piaget's and Kohlberg's work provided us with a deeper understanding of how moral reasoning progresses through cognitive stages. - Kohlberg's theory places moral reasoning in a sociocultural context, emphasising that we are influenced by and, in turn, influence those around us by our actions. ### Problems with Stages - Stage-based theories can be problematic. - Kohlberg's stages are not self-contained. ### Moral Reasoning Versus Moral Behaviour - An important assumption of cognitive approaches is the belief that our reasoning or understanding is a driving force for our behaviour. - People may slip between stages as the circumstances dictate. ### Gender and Age Considerations - Kohlberg's initial research was conducted exclusively with males aged 10 to 16 years of age. - Gilligan argued that girls reason in a different way (probably because they are socialised into the female gender role). - Later studies have shown that both males and females reason in similar/different ways about the Kohlbergian dilemmas. ### Cultural Considerations - Kohlberg argued that his theory holds true across cultures. - However, research indicates that there is likely to be variation in moral reasoning and moral behaviours within these cultures as well as between cultures. ### Think About - Kohlberg argued for a connection between emotional development and moral reasoning. Can you explain some ways that emotion may be linked to moral reasoning? ## Further Perspectives on Moral Development - There are ongoing debates about what is of value in moral terms, whether there is a universal core set of values that binds individuals across cultures, and whether or not educators play a role in moral development. ### Gilligan’s Theory of Feminine Moral Reasoning - Notes that the primarily male orientation of Kohlberg's theory centres concerns about justice, rules and rights as reasons for acting morally. - Contended that, because males and females reason differently about moral dilemmas, females tend to score