Chapter 3 Summary of Reading Principles and Teaching PDF

Chapter 3. Reading principles and teaching 3.1 Writing Systems and Speech - Writing systems represent spoken language, primarily focusing on sound or meaning. - Two key types of writing systems: - **Sound-based systems:** Represent phonemes or syllables. - **Meaning-based sy...

Chapter 3. Reading principles and teaching 3.1 Writing Systems and Speech - Writing systems represent spoken language, primarily focusing on sound or meaning. - Two key types of writing systems: - **Sound-based systems:** Represent phonemes or syllables. - **Meaning-based systems:** Represent morphemes. 3.1.1 Writing Systems Based on Speech Sounds: Phonemes or Syllables Sound-based writing systems attempt to map speech sounds to written symbols. The degree to which the system corresponds to the spoken form affects its ease of use. **Examples of Sound-Based Writing Systems** - **Devanagari** (used in India): Represents syllables. - **Arabic** (used in Egypt): Represents phonemes and sometimes syllables. - **Hangul** (South Korea): A syllabary with a simple and logical structure. - **Kana syllabaries** (Japan): Represent syllables. - **Cyrillic alphabet** (Russia and Bulgaria): Represents phonemes. - **Roman alphabet** (Western Europe, English-speaking countries): Represents phonemes. **Orthographic Consistency** - - - - - **Complexities in Mixed Systems** - 3.1.2 The Unpredictability of English Orthography English orthography is one of the most inconsistent writing systems, causing difficulty for both native and non-native learners. **Why is English Orthography Unpredictable?** 1. **Adaptation of the Roman Alphabet**: - The Roman alphabet was originally designed for Latin, which has fewer phonemes than English. - English had to adapt by assigning multiple sounds to a single letter (e.g., \"a\" in *cat* and *want*) and using letter combinations to represent unique sounds (e.g., \"th\" in *think*). 2. **Historical Linguistic Changes**: - English spelling reflects older forms of pronunciation that are no longer used. For example: - Words like *light*, *night*, and *right* were once pronounced with sounds similar to the German *macht* but have since changed, leaving silent letters. - English borrowed heavily from other languages, particularly after the Norman Conquest (1066), which introduced French spellings and pronunciations. **Poem Illustrating English Spelling Inconsistencies** A humorous poem highlights the irregularities of English spelling and pronunciation (e.g., *tough*, *bough*, *cough*, *dough*). The poem underscores the complexity of mastering English orthography. **Origins of the English Alphabet** - The English alphabet originates from ancient Semitic writing systems, adapted by the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans. - Through Roman conquest and later European colonization, the alphabet spread globally, adapting to indigenous languages like Vietnamese and Indonesian. 3.1.3 Writing Systems Based on Meaning: The Morpheme Some writing systems are not based on sound but on **meaning**, where symbols represent morphemes rather than phonemes or syllables. **Chinese Writing System** - **Morpheme-based**: Each character represents a morpheme and also corresponds to a single syllable. - **Kowtow Example**: The word *kowtow* consists of two morphemes: - *Kow* = knock - *Tow* = head - Together, *kowtow* means to bow deeply in respect. - While Chinese characters originated as pictographs, most characters today have a conventional rather than pictorial representation. **Japanese Writing System** - Borrowed the Chinese character system (Kanji) over 1300 years ago but also developed its own syllabaries (Kana). - Combines sound-based (Kana) and meaning-based (Kanji) systems, creating a unique and complex writing structure. 3.2 The Whole-Word vs. Phonics/Decoding Controversy 3.2.1 The Phonics/Decoding Approach The **Phonics/Decoding Approach** emphasizes the systematic teaching of the relationship between letters and their corresponding sounds. It is grounded in the belief that reading involves decoding written forms into spoken language, which then leads to comprehension. 3.2.1.1 The Nature of Reading According to Phonics/Decoding - - Reading is viewed as a two-step process: - **Decoding**: Converting written symbols (letters) into sounds (phonemes). - **Comprehension**: Understanding meaning from the spoken language derived from decoding. - - - - - - - - - - - 3.2.1.2 Supporting Research Evidence for Phonics/Decoding is Sparse - **Supporting Studies:** 1. - - 2. - - 3. - - 4. - **Contrasting Evidence:** - - - **Conclusion from Research:** - - 3.2.1.3 Problems with the Phonics/Decoding Approach Critics of the phonics approach point to several inherent challenges that limit its effectiveness, particularly in a language like English. **1. Wrongly Focuses on Sound Rather Than Meaning:** - - **2. Decoding is a Difficult Process:** - - - - - - **3. Reliance on Context for Meaning:** - - - **4. Over-Complexity of Phonics Rules:** - - - **5. Fails to Align with Natural Learning Processes:** - - **Key Criticisms of the Phonics/Decoding Approach** 1. 2. 3. 4. 3.2.2 The Whole-Word Approach The **Whole-Word Approach** focuses on teaching children to recognize entire words as units of meaning rather than decoding individual letters or phonemes. This method aligns with natural language acquisition and prioritizes comprehension and communication over mechanical sound analysis. 3.2.2.1 Teaching Reading Should Focus on Meaning and Communication, Not Speech - **Core Principle**:\ Reading is a form of communication, and its ultimate purpose is to derive meaning from written forms. Pronunciation and writing are secondary and incidental to the primary goal of comprehension. - **Instructional Implications**: - Unlike phonics, which teaches sound-symbol relationships, the Whole-Word Approach emphasizes learning words as wholes that carry meaning. - It treats English---an alphabetic language---as though it were a meaning-based system (similar to Chinese), where symbols represent morphemes rather than phonemes. - **Children's Memory Ability**: - Children have a remarkable capacity to memorize large quantities of whole words. - Just as they acquire thousands of spoken words naturally, they can learn to associate written words with their meanings when taught using proper methods. - **Natural Learning**: - Children learn best when reading is connected to meaningful concepts and personal experiences. Teaching meaningless letters or sounds first can frustrate them and distract from the goal of understanding. 3.2.2.2 Fluent Readers Use a Whole-Word Strategy - **How Fluent Reading Develops**: - Fluent readers do not decode letters and sounds individually; instead, they recognize entire words quickly and effortlessly. - Experimental evidence (e.g., Cattell, 1885) shows that reading silently (whole-word recognition) is significantly faster than reading aloud, which often involves decoding. - **Research and Examples**: - **Internet Experiment**: A scrambled paragraph where only the first and last letters of each word remain intact demonstrates that people can still comprehend the text. - Example: *"Aoccdrnig to rscheearch at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy\..."* - This proves that fluent readers process words as wholes rather than focusing on each letter. - **Instructional Implications**: - Teaching whole words from the start promotes faster and more fluent reading. - Overemphasizing decoding can slow reading progress and create unnecessary frustration for children. - Since fluency ultimately involves word recognition, it makes sense to start with whole-word instruction. 3.2.2.3 Children Learn to Segment Language by Induction - **Natural Language Learning**: - Children acquire their native language through induction, a process of self-analysis, where they infer linguistic rules (morphemes, syntax, and phonology) from whole words, phrases, and sentences. - Parents do not teach children to segment sounds explicitly. Instead, they speak whole words, and children figure out patterns themselves. - **Examples from Speech Development**: - Children produce forms like *breaked* (instead of *broke*) or *mouses* (instead of *mice*), demonstrating their ability to analyze whole words and infer patterns independently. - **Applying Induction to Reading**: - Similarly, children can learn letter-sound correspondences naturally by first recognizing whole words and later segmenting them mentally. - Once children understand that written forms represent meaningful words, they can deduce the sound values of individual letters or letter combinations without explicit instruction. - **Advantages Over Phonics**: - The Whole-Word Approach leverages children's natural inductive abilities. - Decoding phonics rules is a cognitively demanding and often unnatural process, especially in English, where irregularities make consistent decoding difficult. - Recognizing whole words simplifies reading, fosters confidence, and allows children to focus on understanding meaning rather than mechanical decoding. 3.2.2.4 Research Evidence in Support of Learning Letter-Sound Values by Induction Research supports the idea that children can learn the relationship between letters and sounds through a process called induction. Instead of direct teaching, children can discover these relationships naturally by being exposed to whole words. Studies, such as those conducted by Gates, show that when children read and encounter words in context, they can infer the sounds associated with letters without needing explicit instruction. This method reflects how children learn language naturally, allowing for better retention and understanding. 3.2.2.5 Learning to Discriminate Individual Letter Shapes: Best in a Word Children learn to recognize letter shapes more effectively when they see them within whole words rather than in isolation. Contextualizing letters helps kids make connections between the shapes and their meanings. For example, when children see the letter \"b\" in the word \"bat,\" they associate it with the entire concept of the word, reinforcing their understanding of the letter\'s sound and shape. This contextual learning is more engaging and meaningful, leading to quicker recognition. 3.2.2.6 Reading Should Involve Only Meaningful Words, Phrases, and Sentences The Whole-Word approach posits that reading instruction should focus on meaningful texts, such as complete words, phrases, and sentences, rather than isolated letters or sounds. This approach emphasizes comprehension, as it encourages learners to engage with language in a context that makes sense to them. By focusing on meaning, learners develop a deeper understanding of language and improve their reading skills. This mirrors natural language acquisition, where children learn to understand and produce language through meaningful interactions. 3.2.2.7 Reading Should Not Depend on Teaching New Language or New Concepts The Whole-Word approach asserts that reading instruction should not require teaching entirely new vocabulary or concepts. Instead, it should build on words and ideas that children are already familiar with. This familiarity helps to reduce cognitive load and allows learners to focus on understanding and enjoying the reading material rather than struggling with unfamiliar terms. 3.2.2.8 Reading Should Be Based on Speech Understanding and Not on Speech Production This perspective emphasizes that reading should be grounded in comprehension rather than the ability to produce speech sounds. Understanding the meaning of words and sentences is more crucial than merely pronouncing them correctly. This approach encourages learners to focus on grasping the content and context of what they read, which fosters deeper cognitive engagement and comprehension. 3.2.2.9 Reading Should Not Depend on the Teaching of Writing The Whole-Word approach argues that reading instruction should be separate from writing instruction. While both skills are related, teaching writing can sometimes distract from the primary goal of reading---understanding meaning. By keeping these skills distinct, learners can prioritize developing their reading abilities without the added complexity of writing mechanics. 3.2.2.10 Learning to Read Should Be Enjoyable Finally, it is essential that the process of learning to read is enjoyable for children. When reading is framed as a fun and engaging activity, learners are more likely to develop a positive attitude toward reading. Enjoyable reading experiences can foster a love for literature and learning, making children more motivated to read independently and explore new ideas. This enjoyment contributes significantly to their overall reading development and literacy skills. **Subsection** **Core Focus** **Key Arguments** **Instructional Implications** ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **3.2.2.1 Teaching Reading Should Focus on Meaning and Communication and Not on Speech** Focuses on meaning and comprehension over pronunciation. Reading is a communicative skill. Pronunciation and writing words are incidental to understanding. Teach whole words that carry meaning; avoid overemphasis on phonics or sounds. **3.2.2.2 Fluent Readers Use a Whole-Word Strategy** Fluent readers identify words as wholes. Research shows fluent readers process whole words quickly, skipping letter-by-letter decoding. Teach whole-word recognition from the start to build fluency and comprehension. **3.2.2.3 Children Learn to Segment Their Native Language, Morphemically, Syntactically, and Phonologically, by Induction** Children learn naturally by induction. Children analyze and deduce language structures (sounds, morphemes) without explicit instruction. Start with whole words; let children infer letter-sound values later naturally. **3.2.2.4 Research Evidence in Support of Learning Letter-Sound Values by Induction** Children induce letter-sound values naturally. Studies show children deduce sound-letter correspondences while learning whole words. Avoid explicit phonics; provide whole-word exposure with meaningful contexts. **3.2.2.5 Learning to Discriminate Individual Letter Shapes: Best in a Word** Letter shapes are best learned in context. Whole words provide context for distinguishing letter orientation (e.g., b/d/p/q). Teach letter recognition within meaningful whole words to prevent confusion. **3.2.2.6 Reading Should Involve Only Meaningful Words, Phrases, and Sentences** Reading should reflect known spoken language. Children learn better when words are familiar, meaningful, and connected to their lives. Use words, phrases, and sentences that the child already understands in speech. **3.2.2.7 Reading Should Not Depend on Teaching New Language or New Concepts** Avoid teaching unfamiliar words or concepts. New language burdens learners; focus on words already understood in speech for faster progress. Introduce only familiar vocabulary; avoid teaching language concepts during reading. **3.2.2.8 Reading Should Be Based on Speech Understanding and Not on Speech Production** Focus on understanding, not speaking. Speech clarity is unnecessary; children with speech delays can still learn to read. Teach words based on comprehension, not pronunciation. Pronunciation is optional. **3.2.2.9 Reading Should Not Depend on the Teaching of Writing** Writing is a separate skill from reading. Writing requires motor skills that develop later. Linking it to reading slows progress unnecessarily. Focus on reading fluency first; introduce writing later when motor skills mature. **3.2.2.10 Learning to Read Should Be Enjoyable** Make reading fun and engaging. Enjoyable activities encourage motivation, interest, and long-term love for reading. Use games, stories, and interactive activities to make learning meaningful and fun. 3.3 A Universal Four-Phase Reading Programme The section presents a systematic, four-phase reading programme developed by **Steinberg (1980, 1982)**. Each phase builds on the previous one and focuses on meaningful language while progressing from basic word recognition to reading stories and books. 3.3.1 Four Phases of the Teaching Programme **Phase 1: Word Familiarization** - **Purpose**: To expose children to the shapes of written words and help them understand that different spoken words have unique written representations. - **Activities**: - Attach word cards to familiar objects (e.g., chair, table) to connect written forms with real-world items. - Games like **Room Object Pointing** and **Word Card Sticking** allow children to match written words with objects. - Focus is on recognizing the general appearance of written words without requiring children to memorize specific associations. **Phase 2: Word Identification** - **Purpose**: To teach children to associate specific written words with their spoken equivalents or corresponding objects. - **Activities**: - Use word cards removed from objects, asking children to place them correctly on matching items. - Introduce games like dice rolling, where one die has pictures and the other has written words to encourage matching. - Expand vocabulary to include verbs (*run*, *touch*), adjectives (*red*, *happy*), and simple abstract words while avoiding function words (e.g., *the*, *is*). **Phase 3: Phrase and Sentence Identification** - **Purpose**: To progress from single words to larger linguistic units, such as phrases and sentences. - **Key Features**: - Teach phrases and sentences that are meaningful and contextually relevant (e.g., *Diane fell*, *The dog barked*). - Avoid simplifying sentences unnaturally (e.g., do not reduce *The dog is barking* to *Dog bark*). - Use real events or personal experiences as teaching material to maintain engagement and understanding. **Phase 4: Paragraphs, Stories, and Book Reading** - - - **Short-Paragraph Stories**: Use simple stories with two or three sentences, such as: - *Sara dropped the egg. It landed on her brother's head.* - **Story Ordering**: Write each sentence of a story on cards and have children arrange them in logical order to reinforce comprehension. - **Book Reading**: - Read the book aloud to the child, pointing to each word. - Encourage the child to imitate pointing and saying the words. - Progress to the child reading the book independently with support as needed. - **Summary of the Four Phases:** 1. **Word Familiarization**: Expose children to written word forms through visual association. 2. **Word Identification**: Teach children to match specific words with their meanings or objects. 3. **Phrase and Sentence Identification**: Introduce meaningful phrases and sentences connected to real-life contexts. 4. **Paragraphs, Stories, and Book Reading**: Progress to reading simple stories and books, emphasizing comprehension and enjoyment. This structured approach ensures gradual, engaging, and meaningful progression in reading skills, starting with familiar words and culminating in the ability to read connected text fluently. 3.3.2 Results of the Reading Programme in the United States, Japan, and China: In the Pre-School and in the Home ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Country** **Setting** **Participants** **Duration** **Results** **Key Observations** ------------------- ---------------- ---------------------------------- ------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **United States** **Home** 1 child (Steinberg\'s son) 12 months -- 3.5 years \- 12 months: Recognized 4 words.\ By age 8, reading matched 6th grade level. By age 12, matched 12th grade (high school). - 2 years: 48 words/phrases (15 spoken).\ - 2.5 years: 181 items.\ - 3.5 years: Read short sentences fluently. **United States** **Pre-school** 2-, 3-, and 4-year-olds (Hawaii) 17.2 weeks (avg.) \- Learned **28.7 words** and **6.3 phrases/sentences** on average.\ Effective even in disadvantaged socio-economic settings. - A 3-year-old learned 29 words and 12 phrases.\ - Top achiever learned 94 words/41 phrases. **Japan** **Home** 3 children (2 girls, 1 boy) First 5 months \- **Boy**: 311 words and 62 phrases.\ Learning accelerated once word-meaning relationships were understood. - **Girls**: 189 words and 86 phrases.\ - Explosive learning after week 7 (boy). **Japan** **Pre-school** 2- and 3-year-old groups 8 months \- **2-year-olds**: Learned **97.3 words** (71 kanji) and 3 phrases.\ Teacher enthusiasm significantly influenced younger group's performance. - **3-year-olds**: Learned **99.3 words** (81 kanji) and 1.93 phrases. **China** **Home** 3 children (2 boys, 1 girl) Nearly 2 years \- **Ke-Ke (girl)**: 401 characters.\ Children developed strong literacy with home instruction. - **Bei-Bei (boy)**: 293 characters.\ - **Xia-Xia (boy)**: 270 characters.\ - All progressed to reading simple books. **China** **Pre-school** 30 two-year-old children 11 months \- Varied progress: Some advanced to paragraphs and simple books; others remained at sentence level. Video documentation confirmed achievements; significant variability in learning. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **3.3.2.4 Implications of Results** The results demonstrate the effectiveness of the **Four-Phase Reading Programme** across different languages, cultures, and settings. Early reading instruction leads to substantial literacy gains, even among very young children, proving that the approach is both **universal** and **optimal** for fostering early literacy development. 3.3.3 When a Child is Ready to Read - A child is ready to read when they can understand spoken words; clear speech production is not required. - Most children are ready by age 2, as they have sufficient spoken vocabulary and understanding. - Before formal instruction, exposure to written words (e.g., word cards with objects) helps familiarize children with written forms. - Teaching too early (before 24 months) may cause frustration; readiness ensures smooth learning progress. 3.4 The Advantages of Early Reading for Pre-School Age Children - **Reading is a source of pleasure**: - **Love of reading is established**: - **Young children learn quickly and easily**: - **The children grow up to be better learners**: - **More time for other knowledge**: - **Significant societal benefits**: