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Technical Communication Principles and Practice THIRD EDITION Meenakshi Raman Professor and Head Department of Humanities and Social Sciences BITS, Pilani (K.K. Birla Goa Campus) Sangeeta Sharma Associate Professor Department of...

Technical Communication Principles and Practice THIRD EDITION Meenakshi Raman Professor and Head Department of Humanities and Social Sciences BITS, Pilani (K.K. Birla Goa Campus) Sangeeta Sharma Associate Professor Department of Humanities and Social Sciences BITS, Pilani  3 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries. Published in India by Oxford University Press YMCA Library Building, 1 Jai Singh Road, New Delhi 110001, India © Oxford University Press 2004, 2011, 2015 The moral rights of the author/s have been asserted. First Edition published in 2004 Third Edition published in 2015 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above. You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer. ISBN-13: 978-0-19-945749-6 ISBN-10: 0-19-945749-2 Typeset in Caslon Pro by Anvi Composers, New Delhi 110063 Printed in India by Magic International (P) Ltd., Greater Noida Third-party website addresses mentioned in this book are provided by Oxford University Press in good faith and for information only. Oxford University Press disclaims any responsibility for the material contained therein.  About the Authors Meenakshi Raman is presently Professor and Head, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences at the Goa campus of the Birla Institute of Technology and Science (BITS), Pilani. She has several years of teaching experience and has been teaching courses on professional and technical communication at various levels. Sangeeta Sharma is presently Associate Professor, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences at BITS, Pilani. She is also the Coordinator of the Centre for Women Studies and has been teaching courses on communication and advertising at BITS, Pilani. Dr Sharma has several years of teaching experience and has published several articles on communication.  Brief Contents Preface to the Third Edition iii Preface to the First Edition vi Features of the Book viii Detailed Contents xi PART I: INTRODUCTION TO TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 1. Basics of Technical Communication 3 2. Barriers to Communication 25 3. Non-verbal Communication 39 PART II: LISTENING AND SPEAKING 4. Active Listening 53 5. Effective Speaking 73 6. Conversations and Dialogues 98 7. Formal Presentations 113 8. Interviews 140 9. Group Communication 176 PART III: READING AND WRITING 10. Reading Comprehension 223 11. Elements of Effective Writing 252 12. The Art of Condensation 274 13. Technical Reports 284 14. Technical Proposals 321 15. Formal Letters, Memos, and Email 349 16. Research Papers and Technical Descriptions 419 PART IV: REVIEW OF GRAMMAR 17. Grammar and Vocabulary Development 437 References 493 Index 495 About the Authors 499  Detailed Contents Preface to the Third Edition iii Preface to the First Edition vi Features of the Book viii Brief Contents x PART I: INTRODUCTION TO TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 1. Basics of Technical Communication 3 Drawings and Diagrams 19 Introduction 3 Photographs 21 Maps 22 Importance of Technical Communication 4 General and Technical Communication 4 2. Barriers to Communication 25 Objectives and Characteristics of Technical Introduction 25 Communication 5 Noise 26 Process of Communication 5 Classification of Barriers 27 Communication Cycle 6 Intrapersonal Barriers 27 Levels of Communication 7 Interpersonal Barriers 31 Extrapersonal Communication 7 Organizational Barriers 34 Intrapersonal Communication 7 3. Non-verbal Communication 39 Interpersonal Communication 8 Introduction 39 Organizational Communication 8 Mass Communication 9 Kinesics 40 Flow of Communication 9 Proxemics 44 Vertical Communication 10 Chronemics 45 Horizontal Communication 11 Correlating Verbal and Non-verbal Diagonal Communication 11 Communication 46 Visual Aids in Technical Communication 12 Cross-cultural Variations 47 Tables 14 Significance of Understanding Graphs 16 Culture 48 Charts 19 PART II: LISTENING AND SPEAKING 4. Active Listening 53 Poor Listening Habits 55 Introduction 53 Traits of a Good Listener 57 Meaning and Art of Listening 54 Being Non-evaluative 57 Importance of Listening and Empathy in Paraphrasing 58 Communication 54 Reflecting Implications 58 Reasons for Poor Listening 54 Reflecting Hidden Feelings 58 Inviting Further Contributions 59 Listening versus Hearing 55 Responding Non-verbally 59 xii DETAILED CONTENTS Listening Modes 60 7. Formal Presentations 113 Active versus Passive Listening 60 Introduction 113 Global versus Local Listening 62 Planning 114 Types of Listening 63 Occasion 114 Barriers to Effective Listening 65 Audience 115 Listening for General Content and Specific Purpose 116 Information 67 Thesis Statement 117 Listening and Note-taking 68 Material 117 Intensive Listening 69 Outlining and Structuring 118 5. Effective Speaking 73 Introduction 119 Main Body 121 Introduction 73 Conclusion 124 Basic Sounds of English 73 Nuances of Delivery 124 Vowels and Consonants 74 Modes of Delivery 125 Phonetic Transcription 78 Guidelines for Effective Delivery 128 Rules of Pronunciation 79 Controlling Nervousness and Stage Problem Sounds 80 Fright 132 Word Stress 81 Strategies for Reducing Stage Fright 132 Weak Forms 82 Visualization Strategies 133 Sentence Stress 83 On-camera Techniques 133 Sentence Rhythm 84 Visual Aids in Presentations 133 Intonation 85 Application of MS PowerPoint 135 General Uses of Tone I and Tone II 86 Slide Preparation 136 Achieving Confidence, Clarity, and Slide Show Animations 137 Fluency 89 Confidence 89 8. Interviews 140 Clarity 90 Introduction 140 Fluency 91 Objectives of Interviews 140 Vocal Cues 92 Types of Interviews 141 Quality 92 Job Interviews 143 Volume 93 Stages of Interview*   144 Pace/Rate 93 Face-to-face Interviews: Campus and On Pitch 93 Site 145 Articulation 94 Telephonic Interviews 156 Pronunciation 94 Résumés 160 Voice Modulation 94 Résumé, Biodata, and Curriculum Pauses 95 Vitae 160 6. Conversations and Dialogues 98 Résumé Design and Structure 161 Introduction 98 Types of Résumés 163 Conversations 99 Scannable Résumés 164 Non-traditional Résumés 169 Types of Conversation 99 Media Interviews 171 Strategies for Effectiveness 100 Conversation Practice 104 Press Conferences 172 Telephonic Conversations and Preparation 173 Etiquette 105 Process 173 Telephonic Conversation Practice 108 9. Group Communication 176 Dialogue Writing 108 Introduction 176 Situational Dialogues 109 Forms of Group Communication 177  DETAILED CONTENTS xiii Use of Body Language in Group Effective Intervention 189 Communication 178 Reaching a Decision 190 Discussions 180 Organizational GD 190 Introducing Oneself/Others 181 Brainstorming 191 Leading and Directing Discussions 181 Nominal Group Technique 191 Expressing Opinions and Ideas 181 Delphi Technique 191 Expressing Agreement/ GD as Part of Selection Process 192 Disagreement 182 Characteristics 192 Decisions and Intentions 182 Evaluation and Analysis 193 Raising Questions 182 Approach to Topics and Case Studies 197 Giving and Receiving Effective Meetings 198 Feedback 183 Purposes 199 Discussing and Delivering Negative Preparation 200 News 183 Procedure—Conducting Effective Counselling 184 Meetings 204 Concluding 184 Conferences 210 Group Discussions 185 Significance 210 Speaking in Group Discussions 185 Planning and Preparation 211 Discussing Problems and Solutions 186 Procedure 212 Creating a Cordial and Cooperative Symposia and Seminars 213 Atmosphere 187 Brochure 214 Using Persuasive Strategies 187 Bulletin 214 Being Polite and Firm 188 Turn-taking Strategies 188 Newsletter 216 PART III: READING AND WRITING 10. Reading Comprehension 223 Sequencing of Sentences 241 Introduction 223 11. Elements of Effective Writing 252 Improving Comprehension Skills 223 Introduction 252 Techniques for Good Comprehension 224 Right Words and Phrases 252 Skimming and Scanning 224 Use Familiar Words 252 Non-verbal Signals 224 Use Concrete and Specific Words 253 Structure of the Text 225 Use Acronyms and Abbreviations Structure of Paragraphs 225 Sparingly 254 Punctuation 225 Avoid Clichés 256 Author’s Viewpoint (Inference) 226 Avoid Excessive Use of Jargons 256 Reader Anticipation: Determining the Avoid Foreign Words and Phrases 257 Meaning of Words 227 Avoid Redundancy and Summarizing 227 Circumlocution 257 Typical Reading Comprehension Avoid Discriminatory Writing 258 Questions 228 Sentences 258 Predicting the Content 230 Sentence Patterns 259 Understanding the Gist 232 Salient Points of Sentence SQ3R Reading Technique 233 Construction 260 Study Skills 235 Writing for the Web 267 Note-making 235 Clarity of Purpose 268 Understanding Discourse Coherence   238 Audience Awareness 268 xiv DETAILED CONTENTS Planning Content 268 Characteristics 323 Effective Style of Writing 269 Structure of Proposals 324 Formatting 269 Prefatory Parts 325 Proofreading 269 Body of the Proposal 326 12. The Art of Condensation 274 Supplementary Parts 328 Introduction 274 Style and Appearance 328 Steps to Effective Précis Writing 275 Evaluation of Proposals 328 Guidelines 275 15. Formal Letters, Memos, and Email 349 Samples 277 Introduction 349 Original Text 1 277 Formats of Written Correspondence 349 Original Text 2 278 Types of Messages 350 Original Text 3 279 Letter Writing 352 13. Technical Reports 284 The Seven Cs of Letter Writing 352 Introduction 284 Significance 352 Purpose 352 Importance of Reports 285 Structure 353 Objectives of Reports 286 Layout 358 Characteristics of a Report 286 Principles 362 Categories of Reports 288 Planning a Letter 367 Informative Reports 288 Business Letters 368 Analytical Reports 288 Credit Letters 369 Periodic and Special Reports 288 Collection Letters 373 Oral and Written Reports 289 Letters of Enquiry 375 Long and Short Reports 289 Order Placement Letters 377 Formal and Informal Reports 290 Claim Letters 377 Individual and Group Reports 290 Sales Letters 381 Formats 290 Instruction Letters 386 Prewriting 294 Cover Letters 387 Purpose and Scope 294 Writing the Cover Letter 387 Audience 294 Academic and Business Cover Letters 387 Sources of Information 296 Cover Letters Accompanying Résumés 389 Organizing the Material 297 Memos 392 Interpreting Information 297 Classification and Purpose 395 Making an Outline 297 Structure and Layout 396 Structure of Reports (Manuscript Format) Style 400 301 Emails 401 Prefatory Parts 302 Advantages and Limitations 404 Main Text 308 Style, Structure, and Content 405 Supplementary Parts 311 Email Etiquette 407 Types of Reports 312 Effectiveness and Security 411 Writing the Report 314 16. Research Papers and Technical First Draft 314 Revising, Editing, and Proofreading 315 Descriptions 419 Introduction 419 14. Technical Proposals 321 Research Paper 420 Introduction 321 Characteristics 420 Definition and Purpose 322 Components 421 Types 322 Technical Description 427  DETAILED CONTENTS xv Guidelines for Writing Good Process Description 431 Descriptions 427 Object Description: Dual-option Checklist 428 Burner System 431 Writing Technical Descriptions 428 Process Description: Natural Waters 433 PART IV: REVIEW OF GRAMMAR 17. Grammar and Subject–verb Agreement 460 Vocabulary Development 437 Tenses 462 Introduction 437 Present Tense 462 A Brief History of Words 438 Past Tense 465 Using the Dictionary and Thesaurus 441 Future Tense 466 Active and Passive Voice 468 Changing Words from One Form to Another 442 Conditional Sentences 469 Word Formation: Prefixes and Suffixes   442 Adjectives and Degrees of Comparison   473 Synonyms and Antonyms 443 Types of Adjectives 474 Comparison of Adjectives 475 Synonyms 443 Adverbs 477 Antonyms 444 Idioms 444 Adverbs and Adjectives with the Same Form 477 Confusables 445 Adverbs with Two Forms 477 One-word Substitutes 446 Adverb Forms 478 Homonyms 449 Adverbs as Intensifiers 478 Homophones 449 Kinds of Adverb 478 Eponyms 450 Conjuctions 479 Phrasal Verbs 451 Conjunction Classes 480 Phrasal Verb Patterns 451 Conjunctions Used in Adverbial Nouns 453 Phrases and Clauses 481 Prepositions 482 Compound Nouns 454 Noun Phrases 454 Articles 483 Gerunds 456 Indefinite Articles 484 Uses of Gerunds 457 Definite Article 484 Infinitives 458 Omission of Articles 485 Uses of Infinitives 459 References 493 Index 495 About the Authors 499 xvi DETAILED CONTENTS ONLINE RESOURCES CD CONTENTS For Faculty Videos PowerPoint Slides Interviews Group discussion For Students Professional presentation Additional Text Listening and Speaking Practice Multiple-choice Questions PowerPoint Presentations Body language Body language Pronunciation Listening Interviews Interviews Group discussion Group discussion Flash card Glossary Text Supplements  PART I INTRODUCTION TO TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION Chapter 1: Basics of Technical Communication Chapter 2: Barriers to Communication Chapter 3: Non-verbal Communication CHAPTER 1 Basics of Technical Communication OBJECTIVES INTRODUCTION You should study the chapter In the academic environment, we encounter various situations involving to know speech or writing: conversation with friends, professors, or colleagues to the importance of technical achieve various purposes; seminars, group discussions, written tests, and communication examinations; and laboratory or project report submissions on diverse how general-purpose topics. Likewise, at the workplace, we interact with superiors and communication is subordinates, converse with them face-to-face or over the telephone, different from technical and read and write emails, letters, reports, and proposals. communication All these activities have a common denominator—the sharing of the objectives and information. For example, when you request your professor to explain characteristics of technical a concept you could not understand very well in class, you transmit communication the information to him/her that you need some clarification. Now, the the constituents of the professor receives this information, understands it, and responds by communication process giving an explanation which clears your doubt. If you are satisfied with the different levels of this explanation, you thank the professor and the communication comes communication to an end. If you are still in doubt, you once again request clarification, how communication flows in and the process continues. This process involving the transmission and an organization interchange of ideas, facts, feelings, or courses of action is known as the how and why visual aids process of communication. We give, get, or share information with others are used in technical during this process. Whether the communication is oral or written, this communication process essentially remains the same. When one becomes a part of any organization, one needs to communicate, and communicate effectively. No organization can survive without communication. All the activities an organization undertakes have communication at their hub. The better our communication skills, the greater are our chances of quick progress. However skilful one may be in other aspects such as work, knowledge, thoughts, and organization, without proper communication, those are of little use. For instance, though you may have an excellent academic record, you may not be successful in an interview if you are not able to express your ideas clearly to those on the other side of the table. It has been observed that 4 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION people who are successful in their careers generally have excellent communication skills, which is one of the very reasons for their success. Most of this is technical communication, so let us find out more about what role technical communication plays in an organization. IMPORTANCE OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION Technical communication plays a pivotal role in any set-up, whether it is a business enterprise, an industry as a whole, or an academic institution. All managerial or administrative activities involve communication, be it planning, organizing, recruiting, coordinating, or decision-making. When you write reports, give instructions, or read brochures and manuals, you are involved in the process of communication. Communication serves as an instrument to measure the success or growth of an organization. For example, papers published by R&D organizations bring to light their progress. When the chief executive officer (CEO) of an organization presents his/ her company’s achievements in a meeting, each of the participants comes to know of these milestones. The higher one’s position is, the greater is their need to communicate. A labourer, for example, may not be as involved in formal communication as a top-level executive. The various types of communication not only help an organization to grow, but also enable the communicators to develop the required skills. However, though most professionals are well aware of the importance of communication, they do not develop their skills to good effect in their sphere of work. The more people participate in the communication process, the better they develop their skills in collecting and organizing information, analysing and evaluating facts, appreciating the difference between facts and inferences, and communicating effectively. To become an effective communicator, one needs to communicate, communicate, and communicate. There is no other way out. GENERAL AND TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION Communication is important not only in an organization but also in one’s daily life. It is an integral part of daily activity. When an alarm clock goes off, it is communication through sound, urging one to get out of bed. When one feels loyal towards a particular brand of toothpaste, it is possible that the television (TV) commercials for that brand have been successful in communicating the message. Watching news on TV, saying goodbye to one’s family, or calling a cab and giving directions are all different types of communication. At the workplace, all activities revolve around oral or written communication. Interacting with one’s boss, reading the newspaper at home, or even dreaming in one’s sleep are all examples of communication.  BASICS OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 5 TABLE 1.1 Differences between general and technical communication General communication Technical communication Contains a general message Contains a technical message Informal in style and approach. Mostly formal No set pattern of communication. Follows a set pattern Mostly oral. Both oral and written Not always for a specific audience. Always for a specific audience Does not involve the use of technical vocabulary or Frequently involves jargon, graphics, etc. graphics, etc. Messages that are non-technical or informal in nature are categorized as general-purpose communication, whereas messages pertaining to technical, industrial, or business matters belong to the category of technical or business communication. Table 1.1 shows the differences between the two categories. OBJECTIVES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION Technical communication takes place when professionals discuss a topic with a specific purpose with a well-defined audience. Technical communication usually has the following objectives: To provide organized information that aids in quick decision-making To invite corporate joint ventures To disseminate knowledge in oral or written form Let us take an example of a customer who has bought a washing machine and does not know how to use it. The customer reads the instructions in the user manual and gradually learns to operate the washing machine without any assistance. This is an example of successful technical communication. When you are confused about which camera to buy, the salesperson explains all the technical features of each model to you. If that helps in your buying decision, it is successful technical communication again. Technical communication has to be correct, accurate, clear, appropriate, and to the point. Correct information is objective information. The language should be clear and easy to understand. If the communication is through a user manual for a phone, remember that people will usually never use it unless they are stuck. And if they are stuck, they will look for instant information to solve their problem. The information must be brief and arranged sequentially so that it is easy for a user to find relevant information. It is also vital that the technical information provided in the manual be accurate. PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION For sharing information, two parties are required—the sender and the Communication can be receiver—without whom communication, which is an interactive process, defined as the exchange of information, ideas, cannot take place. At any given time, one is active and the other is passive. and knowledge between However, this is not sufficient; there should also be cooperation and a sender and a receiver understanding between them. Through what they have to communicate, through an accepted code the sender and receiver mutually influence each other. They should have of symbols. a mutually accepted code of signals making up a common language. So, 6 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION FIGURE 1.1 The process of communication communication can be defined as the exchange of information, ideas, and knowledge between a sender and a receiver through an accepted code of symbols. It is termed effective only when the receiver receives the message intended by the sender in the same perspective. Otherwise it becomes miscommunication. Communication Cycle Consider the communication process shown in Figure 1.1. The communication cycle involves various elements, as discussed in the following paragraphs. The first step is formulation, wherein the sender forms the content of the message to be sent. This formulation depends on the level of experience, intelligence, knowledge, and purpose of the sender. The content, once formed, is called the message. The sender encodes the message using a basic tool. This tool is nothing but the language used—words, actions, signs, objects, or a combination of these. Once encoded using proper language, the message is ready to be delivered. This delivery happens through channels or media of communication. It can be face-to-face, on paper, or through electronic or digital media such as the Internet. The receiver receives the message, decodes it, and acts on it. If the message received is the same as the message sent, there will be an appropriate response; if not, there will still be a response, but probably an inappropriate or unexpected one, as there has been a breakdown or interference in the communication. This may happen because of noise, which has been discussed in detail in Chapter 2. Noise affects the decoding part of the communication process. The transmission of the receiver’s response to the sender is called feedback. Feedback is essential, as it measures the effectiveness of communication. When a message is sent, the communication cycle is complete only when there is a response from the recipient of the ‘How well we message. Otherwise, the message needs to be re-sent. When a response communicate is is received, the message has been successfully delivered to the other party. determined not by For example, you put up a notice asking the members of your student how well we say things, council to attend a meeting on a specified date, at a particular time, at the but how well we are understood.’ location mentioned. On the day of the meeting, you find that some of –Andrew Grove them have come while the others have not turned up. In this case you have obtained both positive and negative responses to your message. However,  BASICS OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 7 since you have got some feedback, the communication process is complete. You also know that it has been effective, at least from your side. Hence, to know whether the communication has been successful or not, there must be some feedback, which is nothing but an observation of the recipient’s response. The communication is fully effective only when there is a desired response from the receiver. Effective communication takes place in a well-defined set-up. This is called the communication environment. A classroom is the communication environment when a teacher delivers lectures to students. If such a communication is attempted without a proper environment, it will not have the desired effect. Similarly, a teacher’s cubicle becomes the communication environment when a student privately approaches the teacher. Thus, the essentials of effective communication are as follows: A well-defined communication environment Cooperation between the sender and the receiver Selection of an appropriate channel Correct encoding and decoding of the message Feedback LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION Having understood the communication process, let us now study the various levels at which human communication takes place: Extrapersonal Interpersonal Intrapersonal Organizational Mass Extrapersonal Communication Communication between human beings and non- human entities is extrapersonal. For example, when your pet dog comes to you wagging its tail as soon as you return home from work, it is an example of extrapersonal communication. A parrot responding to your greeting is another example. More than any other form, this form of communication requires perfect coordination and understanding between the sender and the receiver because at least one of them transmits information or responds in sign language only. Intrapersonal Communication Intrapersonal communication takes place within an individual. We know that the brain is linked to all parts of the body by an electrochemical system. For example, when you begin to ‘feel hot’, this information is sent to the brain and you may decide to ‘turn on the cooler’, responding to instructions sent from the brain to the hand. In this case, the relevant organ is the sender, the electrochemical impulse is the message, and the brain is the receiver. Next, the brain assumes the role of sender and sends the feedback that you should switch on the cooler. This completes the communication process. This kind of communication pertains to thinking, 8 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION which is the basis of information processing. Without such internal dialogue, one cannot proceed to the further levels of communication—interpersonal and organizational. In fact, while we are communicating with another party, our internal dialogue with ourselves continues concurrently—planning, weighing, considering, and processing information. You might have noticed that at times you motivate yourself or consciously resolve to complete a certain task. Self-motivation, self-determination, and the like take place at the intrapersonal level. Interpersonal Communication Communication at this level refers to the sharing of information among people. To compare it with other forms of communication, such as intrapersonal, organizational, etc., we need to examine how many people are involved, how close they are to one another physically, how many sensory channels are used, and the feedback provided. Interpersonal communication differs from other forms of communication in that there are few participants involved, they are in close physical proximity to each other, many sensory channels are used, and feedback is immediate. Also, the roles of the sender and receiver keep alternating. This form of communication is advantageous because direct and immediate feedback is possible. If a doubt occurs, it can be instantly clarified. Note that non-verbal communication plays a major role in the interpretation of a message in this form of communication due to the proximity of the people involved. Interpersonal communication can be formal or informal. For example, your interaction with a sales clerk in a store is different from that with your friends and family members; the interaction between the panel members and the candidate appearing at an interview is different from the conversation between two candidates waiting outside. Hence, depending upon the formality of the situation, interpersonal communication takes on different styles. Moreover, most interpersonal communication situations depend on a variety of factors, such as the psychology of the two parties involved, the relationship between them, the circumstance in which the communication takes place, the surrounding environment, and finally the cultural context. Organizational Communication Communication in an organization takes place at different hierarchical levels. As we have learnt, it is extremely necessary for the sustenance of any organization. Since a large number  BASICS OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 9 of employees are involved in several different activities, the need to communicate effectively becomes greater in an organization. With a proper networking system, communication in an organization is possible even without direct contact between employees. Organizational communication can be further divided into the following. Internal-operational All communication that occurs in the process of operations within an organization is classified as internal-operational. External-operational The work-related communication that an organization has with people outside the organization is called external-operational communication. Personal All communication in an organization other than that for business or official purposes is called personal communication. We will learn more about communication in organizations later in this chapter. Mass Communication Mass communication is meant for large audiences and requires a medium to transmit information. There are several mass media such as journals, books, television, and newspapers. The audience is heterogeneous and anonymous, and thus the approach is impersonal. Press interviews given by the chairman of a large firm, advertisements for a particular product or service, and the like take place through mass media. This type of communication is more persuasive in nature than any other form, and requires utmost care on the part of the sender while encoding the message. Oral communication through mass media requires equipment such as microphones, amplifiers, etc., and the written form needs print or visual media. The characteristics of mass communication are as follows: Large reach Mass communication has the capacity to reach audience scattered over a wide geographical area. Impersonality Mass communication is largely impersonal, as the participants are unknown to each other. Presence of a gatekeeper Mass communication needs additional persons, institutions, or organizations to convey the message from a sender to a receiver. This ‘gatekeeper’ or mediator could be a person or an organized group of persons active in transferring or sending information from the source to the target audience through a mass medium. For example, in a newspaper, the editor decides which news makes it to the hands of the reader. The editor is therefore the gatekeeper in this mass communication process. FLOW OF COMMUNICATION Information flows in an organization both formally and informally. Formal communication refers to communication that follows the official hierarchy and is required to do one’s job. In other words, it flows through formal channels—the main lines of organizational communication. Internal-operational and external-operational communication is formal. In fact, the bulk of communication that a business needs for its operations flows through formal channels. For 10 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION Managing Director Director 1 Director 2 Director 3 Manager 1 Manager 2 Manager 3 Manager 1 Manager 2 Manager 3 Manager 1 Manager 2 Manager 3 Lateral/Horizontal Diagonal Downward Upward FIGURE 1.2 Flow of communication in an organization example, when a manager instructs a subordinate on some matter or when an employee brings a problem to a supervisor’s attention, the communication is formal. Similarly, when two employees interact to discuss a customer’s order, the communication is formal. Information of various kinds flowing through formal channels, such as policy or procedural changes, orders, instructions, and confidential reports, is formal communication. Formal communication can flow in various directions—vertical, lateral, or diagonal—as shown in Figure 1.2. Vertical Communication Figure 1.2 shows that communication can flow in any direction in an organization. Vertical communication consists of communication up and down the organization’s chain of command. Vertical communication can be classified as downward communication and upward communication according to the direction of its flow. Downward communication Downward communication flows from a manager down the chain of command. When managers inform, instruct, advise, or request their subordinates, the communication flows in a downward pattern. This is generally used to convey routine information, new policies or procedures, seek clarification, ask for an analysis, etc. People also send feedback to their subordinates on their actions through this channel. Downward communication can take any form—emails, memos, notices, face-to-face interactions, or telephone conversations. However, it should be adequately balanced by an upward flow of communication. Upward communication When subordinates send reports to inform their superiors, or to present their findings and recommendations to their superiors, communi- cation flows upward. Upward communication  BASICS OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 11 keeps managers aware of the business operations as well as of how employees feel about their jobs, colleagues, and the organization in general. Managers also rely on upward communication for making certain decisions or solving problems concerning the organization. The extent of upward communication, especially that initiated at the lowest level, depends on the organizational culture. In an open culture without too many hierarchical levels, i.e., in a flat structure, managers are able to create a climate of trust and respect, and implement participative decision-making or empowerment. In such an environment, there will be a considerable amount of upward communication. This happens mainly because the employees provide the input for managerial decisions. In a highly authoritative environment, where downward flow dominates, upward communication still takes place but is limited to the managerial ranks. Suggestion boxes, employee attitude surveys, grievance procedures, superior–subordinate decisions (decisions taken for the subordinate by his/her superior), review reports, statistical analyses, etc. provide restricted information to top management. Horizontal Communication Horizontal or lateral communication takes place among peer groups or hierarchically equivalent employees, i.e., employees at the same seniority level. Such communication is often necessary to facilitate coordination, save time, and bridge the communication gap among various departments. Occasionally, these lateral relationships are formally sanctioned. But generally, they are informally created to bypass the formal hierarchical channels and expedite action. From the organization’s point of view, lateral communication can be either advantageous or disadvantageous. As compared to vertical (downward or upward) communication, which can at times hold up and delay timely and accurate transfer of information, lateral communication can be beneficial. Nevertheless, they can also create conflicts when formal vertical channels are bypassed by employees in order to accomplish their goals, or when superiors find out that they had not been consulted before certain decisions were taken. Lateral communication enables the sharing of information with a view to apprise the peer group of the activities of a department. The Vice President (Marketing) sending some survey results in the form of a memo to the Vice President (Production) for further action is an example of lateral communication. This type of communication is vital for the growth of an organization as it builds cooperation among the various branches. It plays a greater role in organizations where work is decentralized, because there is a higher probability of communication gaps in such set-ups. Diagonal Communication Diagonal or cross-wise communication flows in all directions and cuts across the various functions and levels in an organization. For example, when a sales manager communicates directly with the Vice President (Production), who is not only in a different division, ‘A coordinated flock of but also at a higher level in the organization, they are engaged in diagonal birds or a shoal of fish communication. Though this form of communication deviates from the maintain their relative normal chain of command, there is no doubt that it is quick and efficient. positions, or alter direction In some situations, ignoring vertical and horizontal channels expedites simultaneously due to lateral communication action and prevents other employees from being used merely as messengers amongst members; this between the actual senders and receivers. is achieved due to tiny The increased use of email also encourages cross-wise communication. pressure variations.’ Any employee can communicate via email with another employee, –Wikipedia regardless of the receiver’s function or status. Since there is no specific 12 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION line of command, diagonal communication is also referred to as cross-wise, radial, or circular communication, depending upon the structure of the organization. For instance, a managing director could directly call a supervisor and give instructions. VISUAL AIDS IN TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION Visual aids are an important part of written technical communication. An illustration is a visual representation such You might have observed that most technical reports, whether they are as a drawing, painting, laboratory reports, project reports, or feasibility reports, include illustrations photograph, or other work such as tables, graphs, maps, diagrams, charts, or photographs. In fact, text of art that stresses subject more than form. and illustrations are complementary in technical communication. Visual aids are also used extensively in presentations, to support the facts and figures being presented. Graphics can be used to represent the following elements in technical writing. Concepts This element depicts non-physical, conceptual things and their relationships. If you want to show how your company is organized, that is, the relationships between the different departments and officials, you could set up an organization chart—boxes and circles connected with lines that show how everything is hierarchically arranged and related. This is an example of a graphic depicting a concept. Objects Photographs, drawings, diagrams, and schematics are the types of graphics that show objects. If you are describing a fuel-injection system, you will probably need a drawing or diagram to explain the system properly. If you are explaining how to graft a fruit tree, you will need some illustrations of how it is done. Numbers Numbers are used while presenting data and statistics. If you are discussing the rising cost of housing in a particular city, you could use a table, with the columns showing the data for five- year periods since 1995. The rows could be for different types of housing. You could show the same data in the form of bar charts, pie charts, or line graphs. Words Graphics are also used to depict words. You have probably noticed how textbooks put key definitions and examples in boxes with words. To further understand visual aids, let us answer the following questions: When to use? Why to use? How to use? What are the types? When Illustrations are very effective when there is a mass of statistics and complex ideas to be represented. Statis-tical data is best explained through tables, graphs, charts, maps, diagrams, or photographs. As already mentioned, text and illustrations are complementary in technical communication. Hence, whenever the information to be communicated is too complicated or  BASICS OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 13 technical to transmit just through words, we use visual aids. However, they should not be used just for the sake of using them. Why Visual communication has more impact than verbal communication. Using illustra-tions has many advantages: Arouses interest and focuses on essentials Leads the reader to quicker comprehension Supports and reinforces words Saves much time and effort in explaining and interpreting complex ideas Explains the data in much lesser space but with greater accuracy Simplifies numerical data Emphasizes and clarifies certain facts and relationships Makes the descriptions vivid and eye-catching Renders a professional flavour to the communication How The following are some guidelines to use illustrations effectively. The illustrations should be neat, accurate, and self-contained appropriate to the data labelled completely self-contained integrated with the text placed as close to the first reference as possible sized appropriately so that they are clear even upon reproduction such that they create a good balance between the verbal and the visual Types Figure 1.3 classifies the various types of illustrations. It is clear from this figure that though there are various kinds of visual aids, they can be broadly classified into two main categories, namely tables and figures. All illustrations other than tables are usually categorized under figures. In the process of selecting and designing illustrations, the question of which type to use always arises. Which type of illustration can be used most effectively to accomplish the desired objective? What type will present the facts more clearly? Before these questions can be answered, and before the actual work of selecting and designing the illustration can begin, the following preliminary steps must be taken. First the material must be arranged in some sort of systematic FIGURE 1.3 Types of illustrations 14 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION order: a series, a distribution, or some other logical arrangement. Next, we must be thoroughly familiar with the material and be aware of the implications of its use. The final step involves a decision about the type of illustration to be used. Several factors are considered for a decision of this kind, such as the nature of the data, the anticipated use, and the intended audience. These factors are usually interrelated. The type of data will often aid in the selection of the appropriate type of media. For example, if the data were quantitative in nature, the selection might be from one group of charts; if the data were more qualitative in nature, the selection might be made from another group. The following pages provide samples of various types of illustrations and also briefly explain the purpose for which each of these types is used. Tables A table is a systematic arrangement of numbers, words, or phrases in rows and columns, used to depict original numerical data as well as derived statistics. It permits rapid access to and relatively easy comparison of information. If the data is arranged chronologically (for example, sales figures over a ten-year period), the table can show trends—patterns of rising or falling activity. Of course, tables are not necessarily the most clear or vivid means of showing such trends or relationships between data—that is why we have charts and graphs (discussed later in this chapter). The most important use of tables is for presenting numerical data. Imagine that you are comparing different models of laser printers in terms of physical characteristics such as height, depth, length, weight, and so on—you can use a table in this case. Traditionally, the title of a table is placed on top of the table or in the first row of the table. If the contents of the table are obvious and there is no need to cross-reference the table from anywhere else in the communication, the title can be omitted. To avoid complications, tables can be considered as figures (the same as other graphics), and numbered within the same sequence. As shown in Figure 1.3, there are three types of tables: Dependent Independent Phrase Dependent tables are those whose contents cannot be understood without going through the text. This type is used for presenting less data (Figure 1.4). Independent tables are the most commonly used ones. Though the text should explain each table, readers need not go through the text to understand the contents of these tables (Figure 1.5). Phrase tables are used when the data is in words or phrases instead of numerical figures (Figure 1.6). Advantages and disadvantages The tabular form of presentation, while simple for the communicator, has both advantages and disadvantages. A lot of numerical figures can be depicted through a table. A number of TABLE I Details of inpatients admitted on 14.11.15 General ward 35 Special ward 15 Maternity ward 10 FIGURE 1.4 Dependent table  BASICS OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 15 Style and Formatting Guidelines for Tables In the text just preceding the table, refer to the Put the common abbreviation in parentheses table. Explain the general significance of the along with the column or row heading. data in the table; do not expect readers to figure Right- or decimal-align numbers in columns. it out entirely for themselves. If the two entries in a column are 123 and 4, 4 Do not overwhelm readers with monster should be right below 3, not below 1. 11-column, 30-row tables. Simplify the table data When there is some special point you need to down to just that amount of data that illustrates make about one or more of the items in the your point—without, of course, distorting that table, use a footnote instead of clogging up the data. table with the information. Do not put the word or abbreviation for the unit Most of the advanced word-processing software of measurement in every cell of a column. For packages, such as Word and WordPerfect, now example, in a column of measurements all in have table-generating tools. You do not have to millimetres, do not put ‘mm’ after every number. draw the lines and other formatting details. TABLE II Fatal road accidents 2011–15 (% wise) Year Pedestrians Cyclists Others Total % 2011 2380 830 1310 4520 19.7 2012 2315 850 1615 4780 20.8 2013 2255 805 1750 4810 20.9 2014 2460 750 2060 5270 22.9 2015 2050 735 800 3585 15.7 Total 11460t 3970 7535 22965 100 Percentage 50% 17% 33% 100% FIGURE 1.5 Independent table TABLE III Goods Durability Nature/metal Availability Wires Long lasting Copper Freely Utensils Long lasting Steel Scarce FIGURE 1.6 Phrase table combinations are possible in the tabular form; for example, numeric and non-numeric data can be depicted together. However, it also has certain disadvantages: while it is a part of visual depiction, yet, visually, the details are not evident at a glance. Occasionally, the writer might, in 16 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION TABLE 1 Sales data for 2000–10 Sales data for 2000–10 Year Product A Product B 25000 2000–01 20000 7000 20000 2001–02 19899 7500 2002–03 20100 11000 15000 Sales 2003–04 18500 13000 10000 2004–05 15000 13500 5000 2005–06 15500 13250 2006–07 12000 15000 0 2000–01 2001–02 2002–03 2003–04 2004–05 2005–06 2006–07 2007–08 2008–09 2009–10 2007–08 10500 16500 2008–09 8000 19258 2009–10 8500 20136 Year Product A Product B FIGURE 1.7 (a) Table presenting sales data for a FIGURE 1.7 (b) Line graph showing the same data ten-year period the process of putting in too much data, make it too detailed and complicated. Finally, there is very little visual appeal in tables. Graphs Graphs are actually just another way of presenting the same data that is presented in tables— in a more impressive and interesting way. At the same time, however, a chart or diagram offers less detail or precision than tables. Figure 1.7 shows the difference between a table [Figure. 1.7(a)] of sales figures for a 10-year period and a line graph [Figure. 1.7(b)] for the same data. The graph presents a better sense of the overall trend but not the precise sales figure. Producing graphs As with illustrations, the following options are available for creating graphs: photocopying from other sources, generating graphics using special software, and manually drawing original graphics. Many spreadsheet application software packages (such as MS Excel) have fancy features for generating graphs—once the data is fed and the format specified, the application generates the required graph. Several types of graphs can be used. The various types are rectilinear or line graph, bar graph, pie graph, scatter graph, pictorial graph, and surface graph. Line graphs Line graphs [Figure 1.8(a) and (b)] are used to show continuous change with respect to time. For example, the increase, decrease, or no change in temperature along with time can be depicted through a line graph. If two or three experiments have been conducted, the three different readings can be depicted using three lines. Several trends (indicated by lines) over a specific period of time can be depicted by the line graph, indicating trends over time and allowing easy comparisons. However, a little caution should be exercised if the lines cross each other at points, as this can confuse the reader. Preferably, if there are criss-crossing lines, only three variables should be plotted, as too many variables would prevent the fine distinctions from being noticed, leading to erroneous conclusions.  BASICS OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 17 FIGURE 1.8 Line graphs Bar graphs Bar graphs are effective in emphasizing the comparison of various data items. They can be used to depict the quantity of different items during the same period or the same item during different periods. These are the simplest to construct and very easy to understand. They could be of various types: vertical with singular or multiple bars stacked (Figure 1.9) or comparative and horizontal. If these graphs depict more than one variable, two colours or designs are used to highlight the difference between the two variables. These graphs are comparative and if more than two variables in terms of the same time frame are used, a stacked vertical or horizontal bar graph is used. The greatest advantage of these bar diagrams is that they can also be used with FIGURE 1.9 Bar graph with three variables a three-dimensional effect. Presentations in this form are advantageous as they have a convincing impact, and two or more variables can be stacked without leading to difficulties in grasping the details. The colour and schematic designs added to the bars lend visual appeal to these graphs. However, there could be a lack of precision in the presentation of details, as the variables may become too cluttered and the lettering too small. Pie graphs Alternatively known as a percentage graph or circle graph, a pie graph is a circular chart divided into sectors, illustrating proportion (Figure 1.10). In such type of graph, the arc length of each sector (and consequently its central angle and area) is proportional to the quantity 18 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION it represents. This is one of the most popular forms used to depict the share of various categories making up a certain quantity and their correlations to the whole as a percentage. If there is a need to emphasize a particular segment, it is detached from the pie and referred to as the floating wedge. Such a pie is referred to as an exploded pie. The pie graph captures the attention of the reader more effectively than probably any other presentation would. Within one graph itself, the various segments can be highlighted. In addition to the colour pattern used, the categorization of the FIGURE 1.10 Pie graph segments can be given within, outside, or alongside the graph. However, there could be occasions when the difference is very minor and it might get blurred; for example, a segment depicting 0.5% may become too small to notice. Hence, it is not advisable to use pie graphs if the number of variables in your data is more than five, as it becomes difficult for the human eye to detect the relative percentage of too many cluttered items. Scatter graph A scatter graph is used to show the correlation between two variables. Usually, dots ( ) or crosses (×) are used to FIGURE 1.11 Scatter graph represent the data. In scatter graphs, the plotted data must lead to clusters. The absence of clustering refers to the absence of correlation between the two items represented on the horizontal and vertical axes. Notice the clustering at various places in the scatter graph given in Figure 1.11. Pictograms/pictorial graph Pictograms are similar to bar graphs, with figures or small pictures plotted instead of bars. The pictures are chosen in accordance with the variables represented. This graph is self-explanatory; for example, if a graph were to indicate the population boom in the last five years, human figures could be used, thus illustrating the point being made by the writer. In such an example, a cluster of the figures or pictures would indicate an excessive number during that period. This type of graph is not used extensively for business reports. The advantage of pictograms is that large numbers can be presented by a single cluster of figures. Much time and effort goes into the design of this graph so as to make it truly representative of the situation it seeks to address. However, it is not very useful for business reports, which contain more concrete data that cannot be represented pictorially. As pictograms are eye-catching, they are suitable for magazines (Figure 1.12). Area graphs Area graphs can be used to show how something changes over time. Usually, the x axis represents the time period and the y axis represents the variable being measured. Area  BASICS OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 19 graphs can be used to plot data that has peaks (ups) and valleys (downs), or data that was collected in a short time period. These graphs also help to compare trends over a period of time. For example, when an area graph is plotted to show the water consumption in a particular educational campus, the total consumption of water in that campus as well as the consumption in individual areas can be shown (see Figure 1.13). While index lines are predominant in line graphs, the area between the FIGURE 1.12 Pictorial graph lines is highlighted in an area graph. In addition, shades of colours are also used. A darker shade is used at the bottom, and as the plot goes higher and higher, the shades become lighter. In Figure 1.13, the peak shows the total water consumption in the campus. Charts There are two types of charts: organization charts and flow charts. Organization charts Organization charts are generally used to illustrate the various positions or functions of an FIGURE 1.13 Area graph organization. Most of the communication channels in an organization are described through such charts. These charts can also be used to depict the organization of various other ideas such as the different sets of instructions given to subordinates or the different decisions taken for a particular project. Figure 1.14 shows how different options can be organized in the form of an organization chart. Flow charts Flow charts present a sequence of activities from start to finish. They are normally used to illustrate processes, procedures, and relationships. The various elements in the chart are generally depicted through geometrical figures (Figure 1.15). Circular or oval boxes are used to indicate the start or stop of the procedure, diamond-shaped boxes represent decision-making steps, and rectangular boxes indicate processing steps. Arrows indicate the process Charts are often used flow. to make it easier to understand large quantities Drawings and Diagrams of data and the relationships In technical documents, drawings and diagrams are used to depict the between different parts of the data. objects, processes, circuits, etc. that are being described. Diagrams can be used to show the normal, sectional, or cut-away view of an object. 20 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION FIGURE 1.14 Organization chart FIGURE 1.15 Flow chart  BASICS OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 21 Drawings and photographs range from those showing minimal detail to those illustrating maximal and minute details. For example, a simple line drawing of how to graft a fruit tree reduces the detail to simple lines representing the hands, the tools, the graft stock, and the graft. On the other hand, there can be complex diagrams showing a schematic view of systems; for example, the wiring diagram of a clock radio, which hardly resembles the actual physical system at all. These graphics with their gradations of detail have varying uses. In instructions, simple drawings (often called line drawings because they use just lines, without other detail such as shading) are the most common. They simplify the explanations and the objects so that the reader can focus on the key details. In descriptions, detailed drawings are used, including those with shading and depth perspectives. Figures 1.16 and 1.17 show examples of technical drawings. Several application software programs as well as the Internet provide clip arts, which are pre-made images of fairly common objects such as computers and telephones. These images can be used in technical documents along with suitable labels. Figure 1.18 shows some examples of clip art available in MS Word. One difference between photography and other forms of graphics is that a Photographs photographer, in principle, Photographs are often used in feasibility, recommendation, and evaluation just records a single reports. For example, if you are recommending a photocopier, or if you moment in reality, with want to compare various cars, automated teller machines, etc., you might seemingly no interpretation. want to include photographs to support your report. A Upper crossmember front O Idler pulley B Control rod support P Rotor tower tubes C Rotor tower tubes Q Middle crossmember D AN 3 bolts R Motor mount spacers E Lower main rotor bearing S Tail boom tubes crossmember F Support tube bracket T Tail rotor belt B 210 gates G Main rotor sprocket to tooth U Jack shaft H Main rotor sprocket hub V 3/4 Pillow block bearings I Main rotor shaft W Driven pulley J 503 rotax or larger X AN4 bolts K Main frame long runs Y 1 x 3 bolts L Idler pulley bracket Z Clutch lever M Idler pulley engine spacket A1 MW 4 rod ends N Idler pulley swing arms B1 Engagement arms C1 Belts (5) super HC 3V280 gates D1 Drive pulley FIGURE 1.16 Sample drawing showing a belt drive 22 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION FIGURE 1.17 Sample diagram Photographs give the reader a realistic view of the object. However, they should have a good enough resolution so that they are clear even upon reproduction. Irrelevant details can be removed from photographs by working on the negatives. Maps Maps graphically represent spatial relationships on plane surfaces. They are used to establish a frame of reference and to facilitate the understanding of spatial relationships that are difficult to describe in words, especially to serve as navigational aid. They may take different forms, such as the map of a political territory (town, state or country), the layout of a store or a manufacturing plant, or the market area of a business. They are appropriate when discussing or presenting statistical data through geographical indicators or expressing relationships between locations. Figure 1.19 shows the map of India’s population density. The choice of scale for a map depends on its purpose and the amount of detail to be shown. It should be an accurate representation of the geographic details (places, buildings, streets, etc.). Cross-hatching or shading in maps is used to portray absolute amounts, rates, ratios, and percentages of data, such as health statistics, population, employment, traffic flow, and land FIGURE 1.18 Example of clip art available with MS usage. Colours, symbols, and pictograms may be Word used to make maps more appealing and attractive.  BASICS OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 23 FIGURE 1.19 Sample map illustration SUMMARY Technical communication is process of sharing in- response, and feedback. The success of commu- formation through various modes with a specific nication lies in positive feedback. Sometimes the audi-ence for a specific purpose. The process in- message received is not the same as the message volves the transmission and interchange of ideas, intended by the sender; this is because of the pres- facts, feelings, or courses of action. Technical com- ence of noise. munication is different from general communica- Communication takes place at different levels: tion. The objective of technical communication is extrap-ersonal, intrapersonal, interpersonal, organ- to present correct, accurate, concise, clear, and ap- izational, and mass communication. In an organi- propriate information. zation the flow of communication can be vertical, The communication process includes six main horizontal, or diagonal. elements—sender, message, channel, receiver, 24 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION Visual aids are a very important component investigated and presented. The various types of of written technical communication. These are visual aids that can be used in technical documents used extensively in reports, presentations, and are tables, graphs, charts, drawings and diagrams, proposals, to support the facts and figures being photographs, and maps. EXERCISES 1. Answer the following questions in about 200 3. Human communication takes place at different words each: levels. How can you distinguish between intrap- (a) How is general-purpose communication dif- ersonal and interpersonal communication? ferent from technical communication? 4. What are the characteristics of mass communica- (b) Communication is the process of sending tion? Explain the term gatekeeper. and receiving information. Explain the 5. What are the various modes of communication communication process in the light of this flow in an organization? What is upward flow statement. Draw the communication cycle to and what is the purpose of this mode in an support your answer. organization? (c) How is feedback important in communi­cation? 6. How can visual aids enhance technical commu- Give two examples of delayed feedback. nication? What points should be borne in mind (d) Explain ‘flow of communication’. Illustrate it while using visual aids? with examples from the existing communi­ 7. Project: Visit a few organizations (academic institu- cation patterns in your college/institute. tions/business enterprises/industries) and deter- 2. What do you understand by the term technical mine the communication patterns existing there. communication? Explain its importance with Classify them into oral and written categories. Also examples. figure out the direction in which these flow. Pre- pare a two-page report on each of your visits. CHAPTER 2 Barriers to Communication OBJECTIVES INTRODUCTION You should study the chapter Having studied the basic principles of technical communication to know in Chapter 1, we now move on to a very important factor related to what communication barriers communication. Imagine you are a junior executive who has just joined are and what causes them as a trainee in an automobile company. You go to meet your boss, to how to avoid communication seek permission for visiting the automobile exhibition being held in failures caused by noise Delhi. While you are talking, two of your colleagues also arrive to get how to classify your boss’ signature on some bills. You fall silent while he signs the communication barriers bills. After they leave, you resume talking but you find that your boss has not really grasped what you have said earlier. You later analyse this situation, and realize that your colleagues’ intervention led to your boss’ lack of concentration. As the sender, you had patiently tried to express your wish. But because of the interruption by your colleagues, the receiver, your boss, could not decode your message fully. Hence the communication process failed. This discussion brings us to the introduction of the term ‘barrier’ in communication. A barrier is defined as something that prevents or controls progress or movement. This definition implies that a barrier is something that comes in the way of the desired outcome. In the example given above, notice that the arrival of your colleagues was an event that prevented your boss from concentrating completely on what you were saying. So, we say that this incident was a barrier to the communication between you and your boss. All of us have come across such situations while communicating with parents, friends, or colleagues. Let us now learn how to avoid such communication failures and make our interactions more effective. We all know that effective communication is the nerve of all the business activities in an organization. Even a slight break in the com- munication flow can lead to misunder- Communication is effective standings. Communication is effective only if it creates the desired only if it creates the desired impact on impact on the receiver. the receiver. Often, managers get frus- 26 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION trated in their efforts, and end up saying that nobody in the organization understands them. Many employees fail to listen attentively during meetings, or send incomprehensible business letters. Such situations arise due to the presence of barriers in communication, which can take many forms such as inadequate communication skills. There are numerous such barriers associated with communication. These need to be addressed in order to ensure that no gap occurs in the communication cycle. A common barrier is the wrong assumptions made about the person to whom the message is being sent and sometimes about the message itself. For example, if the sender of the message is talking about a technical proposal, he/she would be wrong if he/she makes assumptions about the receiver’s level of technical knowledge. The problem can be resolved to a great extent if the sender of the message analyses his/her message thoroughly and anticipates the likely response before sending it. If a particular communication fails to evoke the desired response, the following five steps can help solve the problem: Identify the problem Opt for the best solution Find the cause/barrier Follow up rigorously Work on alternative solutions The first step—identifying the problem—is the most difficult. We first realize that there is a problem when we do not receive the desired feedback. To identify the problem correctly, it is mandatory that the feedback be analysed care