Chapter 2.pdf

SKILL LEARNING 1998). Almost no part of life or health is immune from Improving the Management the effects of stress. of S...

SKILL LEARNING 1998). Almost no part of life or health is immune from Improving the Management the effects of stress. of Stress and Time As an illustration of the debilitating effects of job- Managing stress and time is one of the most crucial, yet related stress, consider the following story reported by neglected, management skills in a competent manager’s the Associated Press. repertoire. Here is why: The National Institute for Occupational Safety and the American Psychological Baltimore (AP) The job was getting to the Association estimate that the growing problem of stress ambulance attendant. He felt disturbed by the on the job siphons off more than $500 billion from the recurring tragedy, isolated by the long shifts. nation’s economy. Almost half of all adults suffer adverse His marriage was in trouble. He was drinking health effects due to stress; the percentage of workers too much. feeling “highly stressed” more than doubled from 1985 One night it all blew up. to 1990 and doubled again in the 1990s. In one survey, He rode in back that night. His partner 37 percent of workers reported that their stress level at drove. Their first call was for a man whose leg work increased last year, while less than 10 percent say had been cut off by a train. His screaming and their stress level decreased. Between 75 and 90 percent agony were horrifying, but the second call was of all visits to primary care physicians are for stress- worse. It was a child-beating. As the attendant related complaints or disorders. An estimated one treated the youngster’s bruised body and million workers are absent on an average working day snapped bones, he thought of his own child. because of stress-related complaints, and approximately His fury grew. 550,000,000 workdays are lost each year due to stress. Immediately after leaving the child at the In one major corporation, more than 60 percent of hospital, the attendants were sent out to help a absences were found to be stress related, and in the heart attack victim seen lying in a street. When United States as a whole, about 40 percent of worker they arrived, however, they found not a cardiac turnover is due to job stress. Between 60 and 80 percent patient but a drunk—a wino passed out. As they of industrial accidents are attributable to stress, and lifted the man into the ambulance, their frustra- worker compensation claims have skyrocketed in the tion and anger came to a head. They decided to last two decades, with more than 90 percent of the law- give the wino a ride he would remember. suits successful. It is estimated that businesses in the The ambulance vaulted over railroad United States alone will spend more than $12 billion on tracks at high speed. The driver took the cor- stress management training and products this year ners as fast as he could, flinging the wino (American Institute of Stress, 2000). Name any other from side to side in the back. To the atten- single factor that has such a devastating and costly effect dants, it was a joke. on workers, managers, and organizations. Suddenly, the wino began having a real A review of the chapters in a recent medical book heart attack. The attendant in back leaned on stress illustrates the wide-ranging and devastating over the wino and started shouting. “Die, you effects of stress: stress and the cardiovascular system, sucker!” he yelled. “Die!” stress and the respiratory system, stress and the endo- He watched as the wino shuddered. He crine system, stress and the gastrointestinal tract, watched as the wino died. By the time they stress and the female reproductive system, stress and reached the hospital, they had their stories reproductive hormones, stress and male reproductive straight. Dead on arrival, they said. Nothing functioning, stress and immunodepression, stress and they could do. neurological disorders, stress and addiction, stress The attendant, who must remain anony- and malignancy, stress and immune functions with mous, talked about that night at a recent HIV-1, stress and dental pathology, stress and pain, and counseling session on “professional burnout”— stress and anxiety disorders (Hubbard & Workman, a growing problem in high-stress jobs. 112 CHAPTER 2 MANAGING PERSONAL STRESS  As this story graphically illustrates, stress can pro- how to cope effectively with stress, and even less duce devastating effects. Personal consequences can addresses how to prevent stress (Hepburn, McLoughlin, range from inability to concentrate, anxiety, and depres- & Barling, 1997). We begin our discussion by present- sion to stomach disorders, low resistance to illness, and ing a framework for understanding stress and learning heart disease. For organizations, consequences range how to cope with it. This model explains the major from absenteeism and job dissatisfaction to high accident types of stressors faced by managers, the primary reac- and turnover rates. tions to stress, and the reasons some people experi- ence more negative reactions than others do. The last section presents principles for managing and adapting THE ROLE OF MANAGEMENT to stress, along with specific examples and behavioral Amazingly, a 25-year study of employee surveys guidelines. revealed that incompetent management is the largest cause of workplace stress! Three out of four surveys listed employee relationships with immediate supervi- Major Elements of Stress sors as the worst aspect of the job. Moreover, research in psychology has found that stress not only affects work- One way to understand the dynamics of stress is to ers negatively, but it also produces less visible (though think of it as the product of a “force field” (Lewin, equally detrimental) consequences for managers them- 1951). Kurt Lewin suggested that all individuals and selves (Auerbach, 1998; Staw, Sandelands, & Dutton, organizations exist in an environment filled with rein- 1981; Weick, 1993b). For example, when managers forcing or opposing forces (i.e., stresses). These forces experience stress, they tend to: act to stimulate or inhibit the performance desired by the individual. As illustrated in Figure 2.1, a person’s ❏ Selectively perceive information and see only level of performance in an organization results from fac- that which confirms their previous biases tors that may either complement or contradict one ❏ Become very intolerant of ambiguity and another. Certain forces drive or motivate changes in demanding of right answers behavior, while other forces restrain or block those ❏ Fixate on a single approach to a problem changes. According to Lewin’s theory, the forces affecting ❏ Overestimate how fast time is passing (hence, individuals are normally balanced in the force field. The they often feel rushed) strength of the driving forces is exactly matched by ❏ Adopt a short-term perspective or crisis mentality the strength of the restraining forces. (In the figure, and cease to consider long-term implications longer arrows indicate stronger forces.) Performance ❏ Have less ability to make fine distinctions in changes when the forces become imbalanced. That is, if problems, so that complexity and nuances are the driving forces become stronger than the restraining missed forces, or more numerous or enduring, change occurs. ❏ Consult and listen to others less Conversely, if restraining forces become stronger or ❏ Rely on old habits to cope with current situations more numerous than driving forces, change occurs in ❏ Have less ability to generate creative thoughts the opposite direction. and unique solutions to problems Feelings of stress are a product of certain stressors inside or outside the individual. These stressors can be Thus, not only do the results of stress negatively thought of as driving forces in the model. That is, they affect employees in the workplace, but they also drasti- exert pressure on the individual to change present levels cally impede effective management behaviors such as of performance physiologically, psychologically, and listening, making good decisions, solving problems effec- interpersonally. Unrestrained, those forces can lead to tively, planning, and generating new ideas. Developing pathological results (e.g., anxiety, heart disease, and the skill of managing stress, therefore, can have signifi- mental breakdown). However, most people have devel- cant payoffs. The ability to deal appropriately with stress oped a certain amount of resiliency or restraining forces not only enhances individual self-development but can to counter stressors and inhibit pathological results. also have an enormous bottom-line impact on entire These restraining forces include behavior patterns, psy- organizations. chological characteristics, and supportive social relation- Unfortunately, most of the scientific literature on ships. Strong restraining forces lead to low heart rates, stress focuses on its consequences. Too little examines good interpersonal relationships, emotional stability, and MANAGING PERSONAL STRESS CHAPTER 2 113  Figure 2.1 Model of Force Field Analysis Current Level of Functioning Driving force A Restraining force A Driving force B Restraining force B Driving force C Restraining force C Driving force D Restraining force D effective stress management. An absence of restraining time (e.g., responding in childish ways). A third defense forces leads to the reverse. mechanism, repression, involves denial of the stressor, Of course, stress produces positive as well as neg- forgetting, or redefining the stressor (e.g., deciding that it ative effects. In the absence of any stress, people feel isn’t so scary after all). Withdrawal is a fourth defense completely bored and lack any inclination to act. Even mechanism, and it may take both psychological and phys- when high levels of stress are experienced, equilibrium ical forms. Individuals may engage in fantasy, inattention, can be restored quickly if there is sufficient resiliency. or purposive forgetting, or they may actually escape from In the case of the ambulance driver, for example, mul- the situation itself. A fifth defense mechanism is fixation, tiple stressors overpowered the available restraining which is persisting in a response regardless of its effective- forces and burnout occurred. Before reaching such an ness (e.g., repeatedly and rapidly redialing a telephone extreme state, however, individuals typically progress number when it is busy). through three stages of reactions: an alarm stage, a If these defense mechanisms reduce a person’s resistance stage, and an exhaustion stage (Auerbach, feeling of stress, negative effects such as high blood 1998; Cooper, 1998; Selye, 1976). pressure, anxiety, or mental disorders are never experi- enced. The primary evidence that prolonged stress has occurred may simply be an increase in psychological REACTIONS TO STRESS defensiveness. However, when stress is so pronounced The alarm stage is characterized by acute increases in as to overwhelm defenses or so enduring as to outlast anxiety or fear if the stressor is a threat, or by increases available energy for defensiveness, exhaustion may in sorrow or depression if the stressor is a loss. A feeling result, producing pathological consequences. of shock or confusion may result if the stressor is partic- While each reaction stage may be experienced as ularly acute. Physiologically, the individual’s energy temporarily uncomfortable, the exhaustion stage is the resources are mobilized and heart rate, blood pressure, most dangerous one. When stressors overpower or out- and alertness increase. These reactions are largely self- last the resiliency capacities of individuals, or their ability correcting if the stressor is of brief duration. However, if to defend against them, chronic stress is experienced and it continues, the individual enters the resistance negative personal and organizational consequences gen- stage, in which defense mechanisms predominate and erally follow. Such pathological consequences may mani- the body begins to store up excess energy. fest physiologically (e.g., heart disease), psychologically Five types of defense mechanisms are typical of most (e.g., severe depression), or interpersonally (e.g., dissolu- people who experience extended levels of stress. The first tion of relationships). These changes result from the is aggression, which involves attacking the stressor damage done to an individual for which there was no directly. It may also involve attacking oneself, other defense (e.g., psychotic reactions among prisoners of people, or even objects (e.g., whacking the computer). A war), from an inability to defend continuously against a second is regression, which is the adoption of a behavior stressor (e.g., becoming exhausted), from an overreac- pattern or response that was successful at some earlier tion (e.g., an ulcer produced by excessive secretion of 114 CHAPTER 2 MANAGING PERSONAL STRESS Figure 2.2 A General Model of Stress EXPERIENCING STRESS Stressors Reactions Anticipatory Physiological Encounter Psychological Time Situational Resiliency Physical Psychological Social MANAGING STRESS Enactive Strategies Proactive Strategies Reactive Strategies Eliminate Develop resiliency Learn temporary Purpose stressors strategies coping mechanisms Effects Permanent Long term Short term Approach Enactive Proactive Reactive Time Long time Moderate time Immediate Required body chemicals), or from lack of self-awareness so that In effect, resiliency serves as a form of inoculation against stress is completely unacknowledged. the effects of stress. It eliminates exhaustion. This helps Figure 2.2 identifies the major categories of stres- explain why some athletes do better in “the big game,” sors (driving forces) that managers experience, as well while others do worse. Some managers appear to be bril- as the major attributes of resiliency (restraining forces) liant strategists when the stakes are high; others fold that inhibit the negative effects of stress. Each of these under the pressure. forces is discussed in some detail in this chapter, so An elaboration of the differences in dispositions that it will become clear how to identify stressors, how toward stress reactions comes from a set of studies in to eliminate them, how to develop more resiliency, which hot reactors were more likely to be women (men and how to cope with stress on a temporary basis. reacted more quickly to stress, but more factors pro- duced stress in women); individuals with low self- esteem and who viewed themselves as less attractive; COPING WITH STRESS and children who had been neglected, fearful, or in Individuals vary in the extent to which stressors lead to chaotic or broken homes (Adler, 1999). Physician Frank pathologies and dysfunctions. Some people are labeled Trieber reported: “If you come from a family that’s “hot reactors,” meaning they have a predisposition to somehow chaotic, unstable, not cohesive, harboring experience extremely negative reactions to stress (Adler & grudges, very early on, it’s associated later with greater Hillhouse, 1996; Eliot & Breo, 1984). For others, stress is blood pressure reactivity to various types of stress.” experienced more favorably. Their physical condition, In managing stress, using a particular hierarchy of personality characteristics, and social support mech- approaches has been found to be most effective (Kahn & anisms mediate the effects of stress and produce Byosiere, 1992; Lehrer, 1996). First, the best way to resiliency, or the capacity to cope effectively with stress. manage stress is to eliminate or minimize stressors with MANAGING PERSONAL STRESS CHAPTER 2 115  enactive strategies. These create, or enact, a new the blood vessels. Heart disease, stroke, and diabetes are environment for the individual that does not contain the common consequences. If the stress continues, minutes stressors. The second most effective approach is for indi- later a second, less severe physiological response occurs. viduals to enhance their overall capacity to handle stress The hypothalamus signals the pituitary to produce a by increasing their personal resiliency. These are called substance called ACTH. This substance stimulates the proactive strategies and are designed to initiate action adrenal cortex to produce a set of hormones known as that resists the negative effects of stress. Finally, devel- glucocorticoids. The action of ACTH serves to stimulate oping short-term techniques for coping with stressors is a part of the brain vital to memory and learning, but necessary when an immediate response is required. an excess actually can be toxic. That’s why impaired These are reactive strategies; they are applied as on- memory and lower levels of cognition occur under con- the-spot remedies to reduce temporarily the effects of ditions of high stress. People actually get dumber! These stress. same glucocorticoids also suppress parts of the immune To understand why this hierarchy of stress manage- system, so chronic stress leaves people more vulnerable ment techniques is recommended, consider the physio- to infections. Figure 2.3 summarizes these physiological logical processes that occur when stress is encountered. consequences. Experiencing a stressor is like stepping on the accelera- Individuals are better off if they can eliminate tor pedal of an automobile: the engine “revs up.” Within harmful stressors and the potentially negative effects of seconds, the body prepares for exertion by having blood frequent, potent stress reactions. However, because pressure and heart rate rise substantially. The liver pours most individuals do not have complete control over out glucose and calls up fat reserves to be processed into their environments or their circumstances, they can sel- triglycerides for energy. The circulatory system diverts dom eliminate all harmful stressors. Their next-best blood from nonessential functions, such as digestion, to alternative, therefore, is to develop a greater capacity to the brain and muscles. The body’s intent is to extinguish withstand the negative effects of stress and to mobilize the stress by either “fight or flight.” However, if the the energy generated by stressors. Developing personal stressor is not eliminated as a result of these physiologi- resiliency that helps the body return to normal levels of cal responses, the elevated blood pressure begins to take activity more quickly—or that directs the “revved up its toll on arteries. Moreover, because the excess fat and engine” in a productive direction—is the next best glucose don’t get metabolized right away, they stay in strategy to eliminating the stressors altogether. Figure 2.3 Some Physiological Effects of Stress Immune Response Coronary Disease Viral Infection People who care for spouses Men who said they were The chances of catching a with dementia didn’t highly stressed were more cold increased the longer respond to a flu vaccine as likely to have heart attacks people experience work or well as a control group. and strokes. interpersonal stress. People with Full Response* Heart-Disease Incidence† Relative Risk of a Cold Control 100 % 10 % 5 80 8 4 Caregiver High- 3 months 1 month 60 6 stress 3 group 40 4 2 Low- 20 2 stress 1 group 0 0 0 0–70 70+ ALL 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 No Work Inter- Age in years Years in study stress personal *Percent with a fourfold antibody resistance. †Cumulative annual incidence. Sources: “Chronic stress alters the immune response to influenza virus vaccine in older adults.” “Self-perceived psychological stress and incidence of coronary artery disease in middle-aged men.” “Types of stressors that increase susceptibility to the common cold in healthy adults.” SOURCE: American Institute of Stress (2000), http://www.stress.org/problem.htm. 116 CHAPTER 2 MANAGING PERSONAL STRESS  Finally, on a temporary basis, individuals can response is more likely to be, “It’s 2:28,” or even, “It’s respond to the revved-up state by using constructive 15 seconds before 2:28.” The emphasis on time is also strategies such as temporary relaxation techniques and evidenced by the many ways we have of talking about mind control. Such techniques are designed to help time. We have time, keep time, buy time, save time, the “engine” return to idle more quickly, at least for a mark time, spend time, sell time, waste time, kill time, short time. pass time, give time, take time, and make time. Unfortunately, most people reverse the order of This fascination with time makes it an important coping strategies presented previously—that is, they source of stress. A variety of researchers, for example, rely first on temporary reactive methods to cope with have studied the relationships between role overload stress because these actions can be implemented and chronic time pressures, on the one hand, and psy- immediately. But reactive strategies also have to be chological and physiological dysfunction on the other repeated whenever stressors are encountered because (Fisher & Gitelson, 1983; French & Caplan, 1972; their effects are short-lived. Moreover, some common Kahn et al., 1964; Singh, 1993, 1998). They found sig- reactive strategies, such as drinking, taking sleeping nificant relationships between the presence of time pills, or letting off steam through anger, can become stressors and job dissatisfaction, tension, perceived habit-forming and harmful in themselves. Without threat, heart rate, cholesterol levels, skin resistance, more long-term strategies, relying on repetitive reac- and other factors. tive strategies can create a vicious circle. In the story of the ambulance drivers presented It takes more effort to develop proactive resiliency earlier, time stressors were evidenced by the drivers’ strategies, but the effects are more long lasting. How- work overload—that is, they felt compelled to accom- ever, resiliency strategies can take time to implement; plish a large number of tasks in a short time and were hence, the payoff, while substantial, is not immediate. not in control of the time available. When experienced The best and most permanent strategies are those that on a daily basis, time stressors can be highly detrimen- eliminate stressors altogether. They require the longest tal. The presence of temporary time stressors may time to implement, and they may involve complex serve as motivators for getting work done, and some arrangements. But because stress is purged, the payoff is individuals accomplish much more when faced enduring. with an immediate deadline than when left to work at their own pace. However, a constant state of time pressure—having too much to do and not enough Managing Stress time to do it—is usually harmful. In the following sections, each of the three major strategies for managing stress is discussed in detail. Each section first describes the elements of the model Table 2.1 Four Key Sources of Stress in Figure 2.2 and then discusses specific techniques for Time Stressors effectively managing that aspect of stress. Because elimination of stress is the most important stress man- Work overload agement tool, we cover it in the most detail. Lack of control Encounter Stressors Role conflicts STRESSORS Issue conflicts Table 2.1 lists the four main types of stressors illustrated in the story of the ambulance driver. The first, time Action conflicts stressors, generally result from having too much to do Situational Stressors in too little time. These are the most common and most Unfavorable working conditions pervasive sources of stress faced by managers in corpo- rations (Kahn & Byosiere, 1992; Mintzberg, 1973; Rapid change Stalk & Hout, 1990; Vinton, 1992). One reason for Anticipatory Stressors time stressors is that Western culture is extremely time Unpleasant expectations conscious and continues to be even more so year by year. Fifteen years ago, when asked for the time, a per- Fear son might have responded, “It’s about 2:30.” Now the MANAGING PERSONAL STRESS CHAPTER 2 117  As mentioned in the first chapter on self-awareness, individuals not only blocks high quality communication, time stressors are experienced differently in different information sharing, decision competence, and problem- national cultures (Trompenaars,1996; Trompenaars & solving capabilities, but also results in high levels of Hampden-Turner, 1998). Some cultures, for example, personal stress. have an orientation toward a short time horizon where Differences have also been discovered among time stressors are more prevalent (e.g., Philippines, the national cultures with regard to encounter stressors United States, Ireland, Brazil, India, Australia). In cul- (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). The cultures tures with a longer time horizon (e.g., Hong Kong, that are egalitarian, for example, and emphasize inter- Czech Republic, Austria, Sweden, Portugal), on the personal relationships as a way to accomplish work other hand, the immediacy of time demands is less (e.g., the United States, Norway, Ireland, and Finland) prevalent. Long-term planning and extended time hori- face more encounter stress as a general rule than coun- zons make time stressors very different. Americans are tries with a hierarchical or position-based orientation more inclined to pack a day full of short-term activities, (e.g., South Korea, India, Spain, and Israel). Similarly, for example, each of which has a completion point. country cultures emphasizing affectivity as opposed to Japanese or Polynesian people, on the other hand, may neutrality (e.g., Iran and Mexico rather than China have busy days, but their orientation is less toward and Japan), also have a tendency toward more immediate task completion than a long-term wholeness. encounter stress due to the outward expression of Encounter stressors are those that result from emotions. Reacting personally or emotionally to issues interpersonal interactions. Most people have experi- tends to increase encounter stress in the workplace. enced the debilitating effects of a quarrel with a friend, The point to keep in mind in managing stress is that roommate, or spouse; of trying to work with an some people will experience certain kinds of stress employee or supervisor with whom there has been an more than others. National culture is one predictive interpersonal conflict; or of trying to accomplish a task in factor. Thus, whereas encounter stress is a key for a group that is divided by lack of trust and cohesion. everyone, it will be more typical of some people than Each of these stressors results from some kind of conflic- others. tual interpersonal encounter. Encounter stressors are In a national survey of workers in the United States especially common for managers. They generally arise by Northwestern National Life (1992), encounter from three types of conflicts: role conflicts, in which roles stressors were cited as a major cause of burnout. performed by group members are incompatible; issue Table 2.2 summarizes the results of that study. When conflicts, in which disagreement exists over how to workers reported not feeling free to interact socially, define or solve a problem; and interaction conflicts, in experienced workplace conflict, didn’t talk openly which individuals fail to get along well because of to managers, felt unsupported by fellow employees, mutual antagonism (Balzer, Doherty, & O’Connor, 1989; were stifled by red tape, and did not feel recognized, Cordes & Dougherty, 1993; Fisher & Gitelson, 1983; burnout was significantly higher than when those Singh, 1998). encounter stressors were not present. Of the 10 most Our own research has revealed that encounter stres- significant stressors associated with burnout, 7 dealt sors in organizations have significant negative effects on with encounter stressors. The other 3 were situational productivity and satisfaction (Cameron, 1994; Cameron, stressors, to which we turn next. Whetten, & Kim, 1987), and encounter stressors have The third category of stressors, situational been found by other researchers to be at the very heart of stressors, arises from the environment in which a most organizational dysfunction (Likert, 1967; Peters, person lives or from an individual’s circumstances. 1988; Pfeffer, 1998; Thoits, 1995). Not surprisingly, One of the most common forms of situational stress is encounter stressors more frequently affect managers unfavorable working conditions. For the ambulance with responsibility for people rather than equipment. drivers, these would include continual crises, long The highest levels of encounter stress exist among man- hours, and isolation from colleagues. In addition, wide- agers who interact frequently with other people and reaching and increasingly rapid change also creates an have responsibility for individuals in the workplace increase in stress. Cameron and his colleagues (1987, (French & Caplan, 1972; Singh, 1998). Poor relation- 1991, 1994), for example, reported that a large major- ships with others cause particularly high levels of stress. ity of organizations in industrialized nations have Mishra (1992) reviewed literature on interpersonal trust, downsized or restructured since the beginning of the for example, and reported that lack of trust among 1990s. Their research identified an almost universal 118 CHAPTER 2 MANAGING PERSONAL STRESS  Table 2.2 Causes of Burnout WORK SITE CHARACTERISTICS PERCENTAGE OF EMPLOYEES REPORTING BURNOUT Employees are not free to talk with one another. 48% Employees are free to talk with one another. 28% Personal conflicts on the job are common. 46% Personal conflicts on the job are rare. 22% Employees are given too little control. 46% Employees are given enough control. 25% Staffing or expense budgets are inadequate. 45% Staffing or expense budgets are adequate. 21% Management and employees do not talk openly. 44% Management and employees talk openly. 20% Management is unsupportive of employees. 44% Management is supportive of employees. 20% Sick and vacation benefits are below average. 44% Sick and vacation benefits are average or better. 26% Employee benefits have been reduced. 42% Employee benefits have been maintained. 24% Dealing with red tape is common. 40% Dealing with red tape is rare. 22% Employees are not recognized and rewarded. 39% Employees are recognized and rewarded. 20% Sample size: 1,299 private-sector employees in 37 organizations. SOURCE: “Employee Burnout: Causes and Cures.” Northwestern National Life Insurance Company, Minneapolis, MN, 1992, p. 6. Copyright © 1993 by Northwestern National Life Insurance Company. All rights reserved. No part of this information may be reproduced without the prior written permission of NWNL. increase in situational stress as a result. The following Rating Scale (SRRS) was introduced in 1967 to track the quotation from one employee is illustrative: number of changes individuals had experienced over the past 12 months. Since changes in some events were My husband and I both work for a huge con- thought to be more stressful than others, a scaling glomerate. We are carrying workloads that used method was used to assign weights to each life event. to be handled by three or four employees. We More than 3,100 studies have been published just since come home exhausted after putting in 12-hour 1995 among a variety of cultures, age groups, and occu- days, drag ourselves behind lawn mowers and pations using this SRRS instrument. More recently, vacuum cleaners at 9:00 at night, miss our chil- Hobson and colleagues (1998) revised the SRRS so that dren’s soccer games and school plays, and the weightings of individual items have been updated. barely see each other. Because of today’s busi- The instrument was expanded from the original 43 items ness climate, we feel totally helpless to make a in the Holmes and Rahe work to 51 items. Confirmation move. Nobody dares quit a job these days. It’s of the item weights was produced by 3,122 adults of too risky. But the stress is killing us. various cultural, ethnic, socioeconomic, and gender back- grounds. The weightings are similar and consistent across One of the most well-researched links between situ- each of these various groups. (Females have slightly ational stressors and negative consequences involves higher stress scores than males, for example, but the dif- rapid change, particularly the effects of changes in life ferences are so small as to be nonmeaningful.) In other events (Hobson et al., 1998; Holmes & Rahe, 1970; words, we can have some confidence that the revised Wolff, Wolf, & Hare, 1950). The Social Readjustment instrument matches the situational stress experienced MANAGING PERSONAL STRESS CHAPTER 2 119  by most people in the twenty-first century (also see drivers, the constant threat of anticipating having to Adler & Hillhouse, 1996; Rahe, Ryman, & Ward, 1980). witness one more incident of human suffering or death (You completed this revised instrument in the Assessment served as an anticipatory stressor. In organizations that section.) experience rapid change, restructuring, or downsizing, Statistical relationships between the amount of life- anticipatory stressors are also pervasive. People fear event change and physical illness and injury have been that they will lose their jobs, they fear that their friends found consistently among managers, sports figures, naval will be ousted from the company, they become anxious personnel, and the general population. For example, on about new reporting and interpersonal relationships the original instrument, scores of 150 points or below that result from restructuring, and they worry that the resulted in a probability of less than 37 percent that a future will be unpredictable and frightful. Brockner and serious illness would occur in the next year, but the prob- Weisenfeld (1993) documented the negative effects of ability increased to about 50 percent with scores of layoffs and plant closings on survivors (those who kept 150–300. Those who scored over 300 on the SRRS had their jobs), and a paramount problem they identified is an 80 percent chance of serious illness (Holmes & Rahe, the presence of anticipatory stressors. 1967; Kobasa, 1979). Evidence for the revised SRRS are In other contexts, Schein (1960) reported that dra- the same. High scores are strongly associated with illness matic behavioral and psychological changes occurred in and/or injury, whereas low scores are much less likely to American prisoners in the Korean War. He identified experience illness or injury. anticipatory stressors (e.g., threat of severe punishment) Several studies have been conducted using college as major contributors to psychological and physiological and high school football players to determine if life-event pathology among the prisoners (see the Skill Analysis change is related to injury as well as to illness (Bramwell, section of Chapter 1, Communist Prison Camp). Stress Masuda, Wagner, & Holmes, 1975; Coddington & levels in organizations that announce layoffs, mergers, Troxell, 1980). Bramwell and colleagues found that or the introduction of new technologies skyrocket as college players with the lowest scores on the SRRS had employees anticipate potential job changes, layoffs, or a rate of injury (they missed three or more practices) of new skills requirements (Cameron, 1998; Latack, 35 percent. Those with medium scores had an injury Kinicki, & Prussia, 1995). rate of 44 percent, and those with high scores were Anticipatory stressors need not be highly unpleas- injured at the amazing rate of 72 percent. Coddington ant or severe, however, to produce stress. Investigators and Troxell’s results showed an injury rate five times as have induced high levels of stress by telling individuals great for high scorers on the SRRS as for low scorers that they would experience a loud noise or a mild among high school athletes. Cordes and Dougherty shock or that someone else might become uncomfort- (1993) reported findings about the extent to which daily able because of their actions (Milgram, 1963). Fear of health changes occurred as a result of life-event changes. failure or fear of embarrassment in front of peers is a Rather than focusing on major illness or injuries, they common anticipatory stressor. Anxieties about retire- recorded minor symptoms such as headache, nausea, ment and losing vitality during middle age have been fever, backache, eyestrain, and so forth over 1,300 work- identified by Levinson (1978), Hall (1976), and others days. The results revealed high correlations between as common stress producers as well. scores in life-event changes and the chronic presence of these symptoms. We must caution, of course, that scoring high on Eliminating Stressors the SRRS does not necessarily mean a person is going to become ill or be injured. A variety of coping skills Because eliminating stressors is a permanent stress and personal characteristics, to be discussed later, may reduction strategy, it is by far the most desirable. counteract those tendencies. The point to be made Although it is impossible, and even undesirable, for here is that situational stressors are important factors individuals to eliminate all the stressors they encounter, to consider in learning to manage stress skillfully. they can effectively eliminate those that are harmful. Anticipatory stressors, the fourth category, One way is to “enact” the environment rather than includes potentially disagreeable events that threaten to merely “react” to it. That is, individuals can actively occur—unpleasant things that have not yet happened, work to create more favorable environmental circum- but might happen. Stress results from the anticipation stances in which to work and live. By so doing, they or fear of the event. In the case of the ambulance can rationally and systematically eliminate stressors. 120 CHAPTER 2 MANAGING PERSONAL STRESS  indicated that they don’t accomplish what they set out Table 2.3 Management Strategies to do each day. Time stress results. In this section we for Eliminating Stressors review some time management principles that can TYPE OF STRESSOR ELIMINATION STRATEGY enable you to gain control over your time and organize Time Effective time management your fragmented, chaotic environment. Two sets of skills are important for effectively man- Efficient time management aging time and for eliminating time stressors. One set Delegating focuses on efficiently using time each day. The other Encounter Collaboration and team building set focuses on effectively using time over the long term. Because the effectiveness approach to time management Emotional intelligence serves as the foundation for the efficiency approach, we Situational Work redesign explain it first. Then we review the tools and techniques Anticipatory Goal setting for achieving efficiency in time use. Small wins Effective Time Management Almost everyone suffers now and then from a pervasive feeling of time stress. Along with the information age Table 2.3 outlines several ways to eliminate each of the has come an increasing sense that each of us is falling four types of stressors. behind. For example, this week more books will be published in the United States alone than you could read in the remainder of your life. Consequently, we all ELIMINATING TIME STRESSORS have the feeling that we just can’t quite keep up. THROUGH TIME MANAGEMENT Somehow, no matter how much time is available, it As pointed out earlier, time is usually the greatest source seems to get filled up and squeezed out. Currently, the of stress for managers. With a literal explosion of time most commonly prescribed solutions for attacking prob- management books, organizers, consultants, efficiency lems of time stress are to use calendars and planners, to enhancers, and technological time savers, you’d expect generate to-do lists, and to learn to say “no.” Although most of us to be pretty good at managing our time. We almost all of us have tried such tactics, however, almost certainly have all the gadgets and advice we can use. all of us still claim to be under enormous time stress. The trouble is, most of us are getting worse. Just look This is not to say that calendars, lists, and saying “no” around you. Whom do you know who is a terrific time are never useful. They are, however, examples of manager, who isn’t overloaded, or who doesn’t com- an efficiency approach to time management rather plain about being stressed because of time? Which of than an effectiveness approach. In eliminating time your acquaintances is not increasingly stressed by a per- stressors, efficiency without effectiveness is fruitless. ceived absence of time? We’re hard-pressed to name Managing time with an effectiveness approach many. How about you? means that (1) individuals spend their time on impor- It’s no surprise that time stress is escalating tant matters, not just urgent matters; (2) people are because of the rapidity of change and the overwhelm- able to distinguish clearly between what they view as ing amounts of information that people encounter in important versus what they view as urgent; (3) results the twenty-first century. Most of us are moving pretty rather than methods are the focus of time manage- fast just to keep up, and most of us feel inadequate ment strategies; and (4) people have a reason not to because we find it impossible to completely keep up. feel guilty when they must say “no.” The Hilton Time Value Survey found that 77 percent of A number of time management experts have people identified their top goal in the coming decade as pointed out the usefulness of a “time management “spending more time with family and friends.” Two matrix” in which activities are categorized in terms of thirds of the respondents indicated a desire to put more their relative importance and urgency (Covey, 1989; emphasis on “having free time” (Davidson, 1995). The Lakein, 1989). Important activities are those that trouble is, another study showed that the average man- produce a desired result. They accomplish a valued ager was required to engage in between 237 and 1,073 end, or they achieve a meaningful purpose. Urgent separate incidents a day. More than a third of managers activities are those that demand immediate attention. MANAGING PERSONAL STRESS CHAPTER 2 121  They are associated with a need expressed by someone sense of time stress. Because they may not achieve else, or they relate to an uncomfortable problem or sit- results that are meaningful, purposeful, and valued—in uation that requires a solution as soon as possible. other words, important—feelings of time stress will Figure 2.4 outlines this matrix and provides examples never be overcome. Experiencing overload and loss of types of activities that fit in each quadrant. of control can be guaranteed. Managers are merely Activities such as handling employee crises or cus- reactive. Moreover, when these time stressors are tomer complaints are both urgent and important (Cell 1). experienced over an extended period of time, people A ringing telephone, the arrival of the mail, or unsched- generally try to escape into Nonimportant/Nonurgent uled interruptions might be examples of urgent but activities (Cell 4) to relieve the stress. They escape, potentially unimportant activities (Cell 2). Important shut out the world, or put everything on hold. How- but nonurgent activities include developmental opportu- ever, although feelings of stress may be temporarily nities, innovating, planning, and so on (Cell 3). Unimpor- relieved, no long-term solutions are implemented, so tant and nonurgent activities are escapes and routines time stress is never permanently reduced. That means that people may pursue but which produce little valuable lives are spent battling crises 95 percent of the time and payoff: for example, small talk, daydreaming, shuffling escaping 5 percent of the time. A better alternative is to paper, or arguing (Cell 4). focus on activities in the Important/Nonurgent quad- Activities in the Important/Urgent quadrant (Cell 1) rant (Cell 3). Activities that are Important/Nonurgent usually dominate the lives of managers. They are seen as might be labeled opportunities instead of problems. “have to” activities that demand immediate attention. They are oriented toward accomplishing high-priority Attending a meeting, responding to a call or request, results. They prevent problems from occurring or build interacting with a customer, or completing a report processes that eliminate problems rather than just might all legitimately be defined as Important/Urgent reacting to them. Preparation, preventive maintenance, activities. The trouble with spending all one’s time on planning, building resiliency, and organizing are all activities in this quadrant, however, is that they all “non-have-to” activities that are crucial for long-term require the manager to react. They are usually controlled success. Because they are not urgent, however, they by someone else, and they may or may not lead to a often get driven out of managers’ time schedules. result the manager wants to achieve. Important/Nonurgent activities should be the top pri- The problem is even worse in the Unimportant/ ority on the time management agenda. By ensuring Urgent quadrant (Cell 2). Demands by others that may that these kinds of activities get priority, the urgent meet their needs but that serve only as deflections or problems being encountered can be reduced. Time interruptions to the manager’s agenda only escalate a stressors can be eliminated. Figure 2.4 Types of Activities That Determine Time Use URGENCY High Low 1 3 Developmental opportunities High Crises Innovating IMPORTANCE Customer complaints Planning 2 4 Mail Escapes Low Ringing telephone Routines Unscheduled interruptions Arguments 122 CHAPTER 2 MANAGING PERSONAL STRESS  One of the most difficult yet crucially important evaluating what is important. Other people generally help decisions you must make in managing time effectively is determine what is urgent. But judging importance must determining what is important and what is urgent. be done in relation to a set of personal principles and val- There are no rules for dividing all activities, demands, or ues. Table 2.4 presents two different types of personal opportunities into those neat categories. Problems don’t principles statements. They are provided as examples of come with an “Important/Nonurgent” tag attached. In the kinds of principles statements you can write for your- fact, every problem or time demand is important to self. At the end of the Developing Self-Awareness chapter, someone. But if you let others determine what is and is not important, you will never effectively manage your time. Table 2.4 Examples of Personal Barry Sullivan, CEO at First Chicago, for example, Principles Statements reorganized the way he manages his time. Instead of leaving his appointments calendar in the control of From Mahatma Gandhi his secretary, he now decides what activities he wants to Let then our first act every morning be to make the accomplish, then he allocates specific blocks of time following resolve for the day: to work on those activities. Only after he has made I shall not fear anyone on earth. these determinations does he make his calendar avail- I shall fear only God. able to his secretary to schedule other appointments. Jan Timmer, recent CEO of Philips Electronics, assigned an I shall not bear ill will toward anyone. auditor to keep track of the way he used his time. He I shall not submit to injustice from anyone. reported to the entire company quarterly the percent of I shall conquer untruth by truth. his time he spent on key company objectives. The question still remains, however: How can And in resisting untruth I shall put up with all suffering. people make certain that they focus on activities that are From William Rolfe Kerr important, not just urgent? The answer is to identify clear and specific personal priorities. In Chapter 1, Prime Personal and Professional Principles: Developing Self-Awareness, we pointed out how impor- Succeed at home first. tant it is for people to be aware of their own core values Seek and merit Divine help. and to establish a set of basic principles to guide their behavior. In order to determine what is important in Never compromise with honesty. time management, those core values, basic principles, Remember the people involved. and personal priorities must be clearly identified. Plan tomorrow today. Otherwise, individuals are at the mercy of the unremit- ting demands that others place upon them. Develop one new proficiency a year. In order to help you articulate clearly the basis for Attain visibility by productivity. judging the importance of activities, consider the fol- Hustle while I wait. lowing questions: Facilitate the success of my colleagues. 1. What do I stand for? What am I willing to die Pursue excellence in all my endeavors. (or live) for? Be sincere and gentle yet decisive. 2. What do I care passionately about? Be a creative and innovative person. 3. What legacy would I like to leave? What do I Don’t fear mistakes. want to be remembered for? Concentrate all abilities on the task at hand. 4. What do I want to have accomplished 20 years from now? Obtain the counsel of others. 5. If I could persuade everyone in the world to fol- Defend those who are absent. low a few basic principles, what would they be? Listen twice as much as I speak. Answering these questions can help you create Be orderly in work and person. a personal principles statement. A personal principles Maintain a positive attitude and sense of humor. statement is an articulation of the criteria you use for MANAGING PERSONAL STRESS CHAPTER 2 123  we urged you to take time to develop a statement of your provides a basis for saying “no” without feeling guilty. own basic principles. These are the criteria upon which You can opt for prevention, planning, personal develop- you judge activities to be important. Without such a state- ment, and continuous improvement, knowing that ment, it is unlikely that you will be able to overcome the these Important/Nonurgent activities will help elimi- tyranny of urgent time demands. nate and prevent the problems that create time stress. Basing time management on core principles that Effectiveness in time management, then, means that serve to judge the importance of activities is also the you accomplish what you want to accomplish with key to being able to say “no” without feeling guilty. your time. How you achieve those accomplishments When you have decided what it is that you care about relates to efficiency of time use, to which we now turn. passionately, what it is you most want to accomplish, and what legacy you want to leave, you can more eas- Efficient Time Management ily say “no” to activities that aren’t congruent with In addition to approaching time management from the those principles. We are always saying “no” to some- point of view of effectiveness (i.e., aligning time use thing anyway. But usually we are saying “no” to with core personal principles), it is also important to Important/Nonurgent activities (Cell 3) that are most adopt an efficiency point of view (i.e., accomplishing congruent with our personal objectives or missions. more by reducing wasted time). Many techniques are People who experience the most time stress are those available to help managers utilize more efficiently the who allow others to generate their personal principles time they have each day. statement for them through their demands for time. One way to enhance efficient time use is to be Clarifying your core principles and making them public alert to your own tendencies to use time inefficiently. not only helps make them more powerful, but it also The list of propositions in Table 2.5 shows general Table 2.5 Typical Patterns of Time Use We do what we like to do before we do what we don’t like to do. We do the things we know how to do faster than the things we do not know how to do. We do the things that are easiest before things that are difficult. We do things that require a little time before things that require a lot of time. We do things for which the resources are available. We do things that are scheduled (e.g., meetings) before nonscheduled things. We sometimes do things that are planned before things that are unplanned. We respond to demands from others before demands from ourselves. We do things that are urgent before things that are important. We readily respond to crises and to emergencies. We do interesting things before uninteresting things. We do things that advance our personal objectives or that are politically expedient. We wait until a deadline before we really get moving. We do things that provide the most immediate closure. We respond on the basis of who wants it. We respond on the basis of the consequences to us of doing or not doing something. We tackle small jobs before large jobs. We work on things in the order of arrival. We work on the basis of the squeaky-wheel principle (the squeaky wheel gets the grease). We work on the basis of consequences to the group. 124 CHAPTER 2 MANAGING PERSONAL STRESS patterns of behavior for most individuals in their use helps a person accomplish more in a typical workday of time. In many situations, these tendencies may but also helps eliminate feelings of stress and overload represent appropriate responses. In others, however, that are so detrimental to personal accomplishment and they can get in the way of efficient time management satisfaction. and increase time stressors unless individuals are What follows is a brief discussion of these 40 tech- aware of them and their possible consequences. niques. The first 20 are applicable to anyone in all For example, if we do things that are planned aspects of life; the remaining relate more directly to before things that are unplanned, some important tasks managers and the management role. may never get done unless consciously scheduled. Rule 1 Read selectively. This applies mainly to indi- Because many people have a tendency to do things that viduals who find themselves with too much material are urgent before things that are important, they may they must read such as mail, magazines, newspapers, find themselves saying “no” to important things in order books, brochures, instructions, and so on. Except when to attend to urgent things, thereby perpetuating feelings you read for relaxation or pleasure, most reading should of overload. If we do the things that are easiest before be done the way you read a newspaper, that is, skim the things that are difficult, our time may be taken up most of it, but stop to read what seems most important. dealing with mundane and easy-to-resolve issues while Even the most important articles don’t need a thorough difficult but important problems go unresolved. reading because important points are generally at the To help you identify your own time management beginnings of paragraphs or sections. Furthermore, if practices, and to help you determine the efficiency you underline or highlight what you find important, you with which you use your time, we included in the can review it quickly when you need to. Assessment section an instrument to help you diag- nose your time management competency: The Time Rule 2 Make a list of things to accomplish today. Management Survey. The first part of that survey Focus on what you want to achieve, not just on what applies to everyone in daily life. The second part is you want to do. This is a commonsense rule that most applicable to individuals who have managed or implies that you need to do some advance planning worked in an organization. The scoring information at each day and not rely solely on your memory. (It also the end of the chapter will show you how well you suggests that you should have only one list, not mul- manage your time compared to others. The rules set tiple lists on multiple scraps of paper.) forth below correspond to the item numbers in the Rule 3 Have a place for everything and keep every- assessment survey. thing in its place. Letting things get out of place robs The Time Management Survey lists guidelines or you of time in two ways: you need more time to find techniques that have been derived from research on something when you need it, and you are tempted to the management of time. Whereas one kind of time interrupt the task you are doing to do something else. stressor is having too much time available (i.e., bore- For example, if material for several projects is scattered dom), that is not usually the one facing managers and on top of your desk, you will be continually tempted to students. The rules in this survey, therefore, relate to switch from one project to another as you shift your the opposite problem, that is, having too little time eyes or move the papers. available due to an overloaded schedule. Of course, no individual can or should implement Rule 4 Prioritize your tasks. Each day you should all of these time management techniques at once. The focus first on important tasks and then deal with amount of time spent trying to implement all the tech- urgent tasks. During World War II, with an over- niques would be so overwhelming that time stressors whelming number of tasks to perform, General would only increase. Therefore, it is best to incorporate Dwight D. Eisenhower successfully managed his time just a few of these techniques at a time into your every- by following rule 4 strictly. He focused his attention day life. Implement those hints first that will lead to the rigorously on important matters that only he could most improvement in your use of time. Saving just resolve, while leaving urgent, but less important mat- 10 percent more time or using an extra 30 minutes a ters to be dealt with by subordinates. day more wisely can produce astounding results over Rule 5 Do one important thing at a time but sev- months and years. Saving 30 minutes per day is the eral trivial things simultaneously. You can accomplish a equivalent of one full year over a 48-year work life. lot by doing more than one thing at a time when tasks That’s one full year’s time, nonstop, without sleep or are routine, trivial, or require little thought. This rule eating! Effective time management, then, not only allows managers to get rid of multiple trivial tasks in MANAGING PERSONAL STRESS CHAPTER 2 125  less time (e.g., signing letters while talking on the You should keep time logs in short enough intervals to phone). However, take a cue from great flight atten- capture the essential activities, but not so short that dants, retail clerks, or food servers: give one important they create a recording burden. Try keeping track of item, or person, all your attention. what you do every 30 minutes or hour. Parts of the Skill Practice and Skill Application sections suggest that you Rule 6 Make a list of some 5- or 10-minute discre- keep a time log for at least two weeks. Eliminate activi- tionary tasks. This helps use the small bits of time ties that don’t help you accomplish your desired out- almost everyone has during his or her day (waiting for comes, or your statement of personal principles. something to begin, between meetings or events, talk- ing on the telephone, etc.). Beware, however, of Rule 13 Set deadlines. This helps improve your effi- spending all your time doing these small discretionary cient use of time. Work always expands to fill the time tasks while letting high-priority items go unattended. available, so if you don’t specify a termination time, tasks tend to continue longer than they need to. Rule 7 Divide up large projects. This helps you avoid feeling overwhelmed by large, important, urgent tasks. Rule 14 Do something productive while waiting. It Feeling that a task is too big to accomplish contributes to has been estimated that up to 20 percent of an average a feeling of overload and leads to procrastination. person’s time is spent in waiting. During such time, try reading, planning, preparing, rehearsing, reviewing, Rule 8 Determine the critical 20 percent of your outlining, or doing other things that help you accom- tasks. Pareto’s law states that only 20 percent of the work plish your work. produces 80 percent of the results. Therefore, it is impor- tant to analyze which tasks make up the most important Rule 15 Do busy work at one set time during the day. 20 percent and spend the bulk of your time on those. Because it is natural to let simple tasks drive out difficult tasks (see Table 2.5), specify a certain period of time to Rule 9 Save your best time for important matters. do busy work. Refusing to answer mail or read the news- Time spent on trivial tasks should not be your “best paper until a specified time, for example, can help ensure time.” Do routine work when your energy level is low, that those activities don’t supersede priority time. your mind is not sharp, or you aren’t on top of things. Reserve your high-energy time for accomplishing the Rule 16 Reach closure on at least one thing every most important and urgent tasks. Many of us are often day. Reaching the end of a day with nothing com- like puppets whose strings are being pulled by a crowd pletely finished (even a 10-minute task) serves to of unknown and unorganized people. Don’t let others increase a sense of overload and time stress. Finishing interrupt your best time with unwanted demands. a task, on the other hand, produces a sense of relief You, not others, should control your best time. and releases stress. Rule 10 Reserve some time during the day when Rule 17 Schedule some personal time. You need others don’t have access to you. Use this time to some time when no interruptions will occur, when accomplish Important/Nonurgent tasks, or spend it you can get off the “fast track” for awhile and be alone. just thinking. This might be the time before others in This time should be used to plan, prioritize, take stock, the household get up, after everyone else is in bed, or pray, meditate, or just relax. Among other advantages, at a location where no one else comes. The point is to personal time also helps you maintain self-awareness. avoid being in the line of fire all day, every day, with- Rule 18 Don’t worry about anything on a continu- out personal control over your time. ing basis. Allow yourself to worry only at a specified Rule 11 Don’t procrastinate. If you do certain tasks time and avoid dwelling on a worrisome issue at other promptly, they will require less time and effort than if times. This keeps your mind free and your energy you put them off. Of course, you must guard against focused on the task at hand. It may seem difficult, but spending all your time on trivial, immediate concerns controlling your worry time will do wonders to make that crowd out more important tasks. The line between your time use more efficient and relieve your stress. procrastination and time wasting is a fine one, but don’t Rule 19 Write down long-term objectives. This get in the habit of deciding that “I’ll get to this later.” helps you maintain consistency in activities and tasks. Rule 12 Keep track of your time. This is one of the You can be efficient and organized but still accomplish best time management strategies. It is impossible to nothing unless you have a clear direction in mind. improve your management of time or decrease time Writing down your long-term objectives helps make stressors unless you know how you spend your time. them real and lets them constantly serve as reminders. 126 CHAPTER 2 MANAGING PERSONAL STRESS Rule 20 Be on the alert for ways to improve your time conscious.) Starting on time rewards people who management of time. Read a list of time management arrive on time rather than waiting for laggards. hints periodically. All of us need reminding, and it will Rule 9 Prepare minutes of the meeting and follow help make continuous improvement in your time use a up. This practice keeps items from appearing again in a part of your lifestyle. meeting without having been resolved. It also creates the expectation that accountability for accomplishments Efficient Time Management is expected and that some work should be done outside for Managers the meeting. Commitments and expectations made The second list of rules encompasses the major activities public through minutes are more likely to be fulfilled. in which managers engage at work. The first nine rules Rule 10 Insist that subordinates suggest solutions deal with conducting meetings, since managers report to problems. This rule is discussed in the Empowering that approximately 70 percent of their time is spent in and Delegating chapter (Chapter 8). The purpose of meetings (Cooper & Davidson, 1982; Mintzberg, 1973). this rule is to eliminate the tendency toward upward Rule 1 Hold routine meetings at the end of the day. delegation, that is, for your subordinates to delegate Energy and creativity levels are highest early in the day difficult problems back to you. They do this by sharing and shouldn’t be wasted on trivial matters. Furthermore, the problem and asking for your ideas and solutions an automatic deadline—quitting time—will set a time rather than recommending solutions. It is more effi- limit on the meeting. cient to choose among alternatives devised by subordi- nates than to generate your own. Rule 2 Hold short meetings standing up. This guar- antees that meetings will be kept short. Getting com- Rule 11 Meet visitors in the doorway. This practice fortable helps prolong meetings. helps you maintain control of your time by controlling the use of your office space. It is easier to keep a meet- Rule 3 Set a time limit. This establishes an expecta- ing short if you are standing in the doorway rather tion of when the meeting should end and creates pres- than sitting in your office. sure to conform to a time boundary. Set such limits at the beginning of every meeting and appointment. Rule 12 Go to subordinates’ offices for brief meet- ings. This is useful if it is practical. The advantage is Rule 4 Cancel meetings once in a while. Meetings that it helps you control the length of a meeting by should be held only if they are needed. If the agenda being free to leave when you choose. Of course, if you isn’t full or isn’t going to help you achieve your objec- spend a great deal of time traveling between subordi- tives, cancel it. This way, meetings that are held will nates’ offices, the rule is not practical. be more productive and more time efficient. (Plus, people get the idea that the meeting really will accom- Rule 13 Don’t overschedule the day. You should plish something—a rare outcome.) stay in control of at least some of your time each work- day. Others’ meetings and demands can undermine Rules 5, 6, and 7 Have agendas, stick to them, the control you have over your schedules unless you and keep track of time. These rules help people pre- make an effort to maintain it. This doesn’t mean that pare for a meeting, stick to the subject, and remain you can create large chunks of time when you’re free. work oriented. Many things will be handled outside of But good time managers take the initiative for, rather meetings if they have to appear on the agenda to be than responding to, schedule requirements. discussed. You can set a verbal agenda at the beginning of even impromptu meetings (i.e., “Here is what I Rule 14 Have someone else answer telephone calls want to cover in this meeting”). Keeping a record of and scan e-mail. Not being a slave to the telephone the meeting ensures that assignments are not forgot- provides you with a buffer from interruptions for ten, that follow-up and accountability occur, and that at least some part of the day. Having someone else scan everyone is clear about expectations. Keeping track of e-mail helps eliminate the nonimportant items that can the time motivates people to be efficient and conscious be eliminated or require perfunctory replies. of ending at the stated time. Rule 15 Have a place to work uninterrupted. This Rule 8 Start meetings on time. This helps guarantee helps guarantee that when a deadline is near, you can that people will arrive on time. (Some managers set meet- concentrate on your task and concentrate uninter- ings for odd times, such as 10:13 A.M., to make attendees rupted. Trying to get your mind focused once more on MANAGING PERSONAL STRESS CHAPTER 2 127  a task or project after interruptions wastes a lot of time. ELIMINATING ENCOUNTER “Mental gearing up” is wasteful if required repeatedly. STRESSORS THROUGH Rule 16 Do something definite with every piece of COLLABORATION AND paperwork handled. This keeps you from shuffling the EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE same items over and over. Not infrequently, “doing We pointed out earlier that dissatisfying relationships something definite” with a piece of paper means throw- with others, particularly with a direct manager or super- ing it away. visor, are prime causes of job stress among workers. Rule 17 Keep the workplace clean. This minimizes These encounter stressors result directly from abrasive, distractions and reduces the time it takes to find things. conflictual, nonfulfilling relationships. Even though work is going smoothly, when encounter stress is present, Rules 18, 19, and 20 Delegate work, identify the everything else seems wrong. It is difficult to maintain amount of initiative recipients should take with the tasks positive energy when you are fighting or at odds with they are assigned, and give others credit for their success. someone, or when feelings of acceptance and amiability These rules all relate to effective delegation, a key time aren’t typical of your important relationships at work. management technique. These last three rules are also discussed in the Empowering and Delegating chapter. Collaboration Remember that these techniques for managing time One important factor that helps eliminate encounter are a means to an end, not the end itself. If trying to stress is membership in a stable, closely-knit group or implement techniques creates more rather than less community. When people feel a part of a group, or stress, they should not be applied. However, research has accepted by someone else, stress is relieved. For indicated that managers who use these kinds of tech- example, it was discovered 35 years ago by Dr. Stewart niques have better control of their time, accomplish Wolf that in the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania, resi- more, have better relations with subordinates, and elimi- dents were completely free from heart disease and nate many of the time stressors most managers ordinarily other stress-related illnesses. He suspected that their encounter (Davidson, 1995; Lehrer, 1996; Turkington, protection sprang from the town’s uncommon social 1998). Remember that saving just 30 minutes a day cohesion and stability. The town’s population consisted amounts to one full year of free time during your work- entirely of descendants of Italians who had moved ing lifetime. That’s 8,760 hours of free time! You will there 100 years ago from Roseto, Italy. Few married find that as you select a few of these hints to apply in outside the community, the firstborn was always your own life, the efficiency of your time use will named after a grandparent, conspicuous consumption improve and your time stress will decrease. and displays of superiority were avoided, and social Most time management techniques involve single support among community members was a way of life. individuals changing their own work habits or behav- Wolf predicted that residents would begin to dis- iors by themselves. Greater effectiveness and efficiency play the same level of stress-related illnesses as the rest in time use occurs because individuals decide to insti- of the country if the modern world intruded. It did, tute personal changes; the behavior of other people is and they did. By the mid-1970s, residents in Roseto not involved. However, effective time management had Cadillacs, ranch-style homes, mixed marriages, must often take into account the behavior of others, new names, competition with one another, and a rate because that behavior may tend to inhibit or enhance of coronary disease the same as any other town’s effective time use. For this reason, effective time man- (Farnham, 1991). They had ceased to be a cohesive, agement sometimes requires the application of other collaborative clan and instead had become a commu- skills discussed in this book. The Empowering and nity of selfishness and exclusivity. Self-centeredness, it Delegating chapter provides principles for efficient time was discovered, was dangerous to health. management by involving other people in task accom- The most dramatic psychological discovery result- plishment. The Motivating Employees chapter explains ing from the Vietnam and the Persian Gulf wars related how to help others be more effective and efficient in to the strength associated with small, primary work their own work. The Communicating Supportively teams. In Vietnam, unlike the Persian Gulf, teams of sol- chapter identifies ways in which interpersonal relation- diers did not stay together and did not form the strong ships can be strengthened, thus relieving stressors bonds that occurred in the Persian Gulf War. The con- resulting from interpersonal conflicts. It is to these stant injection of new personnel into squadrons, and the encounter stressors that we now turn. constant transfer of soldiers from one location to 128 CHAPTER 2 MANAGING PERSONAL STRESS another, made soldiers feel isolated, without loyalty, and relationships that people develop with each other. As vulnerable to stress-related illnesses. In the Persian Gulf Dag Hammarskjöld, former Secretary-General of the War, by contrast, soldiers were kept in the same unit United Nations, stated: “It is more noble to give yourself throughout the campaign, brought home together, and completely to one individual than to labor diligently for given lots of time to debrief together after the battle. the salvation of the masses.” That is because building a Using a closely knit group to provide interpretation of, strong, cohesive relationship with an individual is more and social support for, behavior was found to be the powerful and can have more lasting impact than leading most powerful deterrent to postbattle trauma. David masses of people. Feeling trusted, respected, and loved Marlowe, chief of psychiatry at Walter Reed Army is, in the end, what most people desire as individuals. We Institute of Research, indicated that “Squad members want to experience those feelings personally, not just as a are encouraged to use travel time en route home from a member of a group. Therefore, because encounter stres- war zone to talk about their battlefield experience. It sors are almost always the products of abrasive individual helps them detoxify. That’s why we brought them back relationships, they are best eliminated by building strong in groups from Desert Storm. Epistemologically, we emotional bank accounts with others. know it works” (Farnham, 1991). Developing collaborative, clan-like relationships Social and Emotional Intelligence with others is a powerful deterrent to encounter stress. As we discussed in the previous chapter, emotional intelli- One way of developing this kind of relationship is by gence is an important attribute of healthy and effective applying a concept described by Stephen Covey