BMAN10872 Introduction To Work Psychology Stress PDF

BMAN10872 INTRODUCTION TO WORK PSYCHOLOGY Stress at Work DR LINA SIEGL [email protected] Intended Learning Outcomes Understanding of what work-related stress is and why it is important Insight into the main causes of stress at work Appreciation of the consequences of stress and how...

BMAN10872 INTRODUCTION TO WORK PSYCHOLOGY Stress at Work DR LINA SIEGL [email protected] Intended Learning Outcomes Understanding of what work-related stress is and why it is important Insight into the main causes of stress at work Appreciation of the consequences of stress and how to mitigate or prevent these What is work stress? “A harmful reaction that people have to undue pressure and demands placed on them at work” “The process that arises where work demands of various types and combinations exceed the person’s capacity and capability to cope” Health & Safety Executive (2019) Why does work stress matter? Why does work stress matter? 51% of all work-related ill-health cases Wellbeing £ 5.2 billion annual costs 17.1 million working days lost due to stress-related ill health Productivity Business success Why does work stress matter? Highest sickness absence rate for 15 years – 7.8 days per employee per year (CIPD, 2023) The Case for Managing Work Stress ⚫ The Moral Case: ⚫ The Economic Case: ⚫ Negative impact of stress on individuals’ mental and physical health; Financial impact of stress on organisations and wider society; The Legal Case: Health and Safety Act (1974) and Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations (1999); Walker vs. Northumberland County Council (1994). Activity: What causes you stress? What do you think are the main causes of stress as a university student? What do you think are the main causes of stress at work? Work-related stress: Terminology Stimulus vs Response STRESSORS Stress stimuli a factor, usually external, that is a source/cause of stress; Perceived as threatening or negative STRAIN The short- or longer-term effect of a stressor on a person. Alarm response to stressful stimuli Includes physical and psychological health outcomes Can be universal or vary between groups or individuals (Johnson et al., 2014; Ursin & Eriksen, 2004) What is work stress? Many models of stress entail the following notions: Stress arises where there is an imbalance between demands and the individual’s ability to deal with those demands; and: This imbalance is 1) subjective for the person concerned, and 2) is appraised negatively. Sources of Stress at Work Stressor ◦ The source of stress, the cause or underlying reasons why a worker may show stress symptoms or disease ◦ Researchers have identified seven major stressors at work (e.g. Cooper et al., 1998; Sutherland & Cooper, 2000) Symptoms of stress Sources of stress Intrinsic to the job Individual symptoms Raised blood pressure Depressed mood Irritability, Worry, Anxiety Chest pains Excessive drinking Role in the organisation Personality and coping strategy Relationships at work Coronary heart disease Mental illness Individual Career development Organisational Symptoms Organisational culture and climate High absenteeism High turnover Industrial relations difficulties Poor quality control Home-work interface Disease Prolonged strikes Frequent and severe accidents Apathy Stressor: Intrinsic to the job Johnson, S. Cooper, C. Cartwright, S. Donald, I. Taylor, P and Millet, C. (2005) The Experience of Work-Related Stress Across Occupations. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 20 (2), 178-187 Stressor: Intrinsic to the job Models of Workplace Stress 1. Structural approaches to stress 2. Transactional theories of stress 3. Resource based models of stress 1: Structural Approaches Focus on identifying features of work that are likely to lead to stress for most workers JDC-M: Job Demands Control-Model (Karasek, 1979) The amount and intensity of work a person does Control over how the job tasks are performed Quantitative job demands: Amount of work Qualitative job demands: Type and difficulty of work Job-Demand-Control Model (Karasek, 1979) low Job Decision Latitude high Activity Level Low Strain Job Active Job Passive Job High Strain Job Stress Unresolved Strain low Job Demands high Stressor: Relationships at Work Job-Demands-Control Support Model (Johnson & Hall, 1988) ⚫ ⚫ Survey conducted by Swedish Central Bureau of Statistics in 1976 and 1977. Self-reported evaluations of job characteristics and cardiovascular health: ⚫ Demands: ‘Is your job hectic?’, ‘Is your job psychologically demanding?’ ⚫ Control: Influence over the planning of work, setting of work pace, planning work breaks, vacations, flexible working hours, freedom to receive a phone call or a private visitor during at work, varies task content and work procedures, possibilities for ongoing education ⚫ Work support: could talk to co-workers during breaks, leave job to talk to co-workers, interact with co-workers as part of the work, meet with coworkers outside of work place, had met with co-worker during the last six months JDC-S Model - Results Low Work Support Medium Work Support High Work Support Medium Demand Medium Demand 11 9 7 5 3 1 -1 Low Demand Medium Demand High Demand Low Demand High Control High Demand Medium Control Low Demand Low Control High Demand Stressor: Relationships at Work Nielsen & Einarsen: Workplace bullying is linked with poor mental and physical health, burnout, symptoms of post-traumatic stress Schyns and Schilling (2013): Destructive leadership is linked with poor wellbeing, counterproductive work behavior and increased turnover intentions Good leader-member relationships, supervisor support and certain leadership styles (transformational and transactional) are associated with better wellbeing and performance (Nielsen et al., 2017) Stressor: Job Role If a person’s role is clearly defined and understood, and people know what is expected of them at work, then stress can be kept to a minimum. Roles can affect well-being and stress in two main ways (Kahn et al., 1964): 1. Role ambiguity: Having an unclear role and lack of information necessary to do a good job 2. Role conflict: Having incompatible demands e.g., from different supervisors or different parts of the role Stressor: Job Role Örtqvist & Wincent (2006) meta-analysis: Role ambiguity and role conflict are linked to increased emotional exhaustion, reduced job satisfaction, reduced organizational commitment and higher turnover intentions Eatough et al. (2011): Role ambiguity and role conflict are linked with reduced task performance and organizational citizenship behaviors (extra-effort) 2: Transactional Theories In response to and transaction with our work environment, we adjust our thinking and behaviour Perceptions of the balance between the demands workers perceive and their own evaluations of coping resources are dynamic and continuously changing Assumes appraisals of stress are often reactive 2: Transactional Approaches Recognises the importance of individuals’ perceptions (appraisals) of their environment and also of their coping abilities Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) stressor-strain model Objective features of environment Primary appraisal: Is this good or bad? Secondary appraisal: Can I cope with this? High or low stress experienced Transactional Model of Stress and Coping Environment (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) Stimulus Primary appraisal Evaluation of the stimulus Person irrelevant stressful (harm, challenge, threat) positive Secondary appraisal Evaluation of available coping resources insufficient sufficient negative stress positive stress Stress and Individual differences Is everyone equally affected by stress? Two people in the same organisation, with the same job and same conditions, may act very differently. What personal characteristics help you deal with stress? What types of people do you think deal best with stressful events at work? Do they have certain personality traits? Stress & Individual Differences Resilience Resilience is a personality trait characterised by ability to positively adapt or ‘bounce back’ from adversity Confidence Purposefulness Adaptability Support https://www.robertsoncooper.com/iresilience Neuroticism (emotional stability) correlates negatively with resilience (Oshio et al., 2018) and has been found to be associated with maladaptive coping strategies (e.g., wishful thinking, withdrawal) Example: NASA personality profile ▪ High emotional stability ▪ Resilience ▪ Adaptability ▪ Team orientation Stress & Individual Differences Psychological capital: self-efficacy, hope, optimism, resilience Part of ‘positive psychology’ approach Psychological capital has been linked to reduced stress symptoms and increased wellbeing (Avey et al., 2009; Avey et al., 2010) 3: Resource Based Models Assumes that employees are proactive, and motivated to identify, protect and develop resources that help them cope with work-related stress (e.g., conservation of resources theory, Hobfoll, 1991) Assumes that employees predict what is stressful before a stress inducing event occurs Employees are more likely to experience stress when resources are lost or there is a threat of resource loss Job Demands-Resources Model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2011) Stressor: Work-Home Interface The interaction between home and work lives has become increasingly prominent in stress research and practice (Frone, 2002). Both work-to-life and life-to-work conflict have been associated with increased stress 1. Time-based. People have a finite amount of time/resources to split between work and home 2. Behaviour-based. Where attitudes and behaviours needed in one role are incompatible with other role 3. Strain-based. Where negative feelings from one domain impinge on other domain (‘spillover’) Allen et al. (2000): Work-family conflict has been linked to job burnout, poor physical health, depression and alcohol abuse Working from home initiatives do not necessarily create better work-life-balance (Lapierre et al., 2016) Consequences of work-related Stress Is Stress Always Negative? Stress can be positive if it is experienced as motivating or a challenge that can be met Eustress (as opposed to ‘distress’): ◦ Stress that is experienced as positive or motivating LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE Yerkes-Dodson Law (1908) OPTIMAL STRESS LEVEL OF STRESS UNDERLOAD OPTIMAL PERFORMANCE OVERLOAD BOREDOM DECREASE IN MOTIVATION ABSENTEEISM APATHY HIGH MOTIVATION SHARP PERCEPTION HIGH ENERGY CALMNESS INSOMNIA INDECISIVENESS INCREASED ERRORS IRRITABILITY Short-term Stress Effects Physiological/Somatic Effects: ◦ Stress hormones increase heart rate, blood pressure, etc; ◦ Gastro-intestinal disorders; ◦ Headache. Psychological Effects: ◦ Emotional changes e.g. irritability, state anxiety, tension etc; ◦ Disruption of sleep; Behavioural Effects: ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Potential changes in performance; Increase in some types of errors e.g. cognitive failure; Potential increased use of alcohol orother drugs; Changes in eating habits. Longer-term Stress Effects Physiological/Somatic Effects ◦ Organic diseases including gastric ulcers and cardio-vascular disease (CVD), and psychosomatic conditions; Psychological Effects ◦ Anxiety, depression, burnout; Behavioural Effects ◦ Disengagement; ◦ Increased absenteeism. The Concept of Burnout (e.g. Maslach & Jackson, 1984) A prolonged stress reaction characterised by: ◦ Emotional exhaustion; ◦ A sense of depersonalisation (e.g. negative attitudes towards clients) ◦ Reduced personal accomplishment (e.g. negative appraisal of own work achievements). Burnout is most often considered in the context of occupations that involve work with people (i.e. clients, the public etc). Team stress effects Team-level stress signs ◦ Conflict ◦ Higher staff turnover ◦ More sickness absence ◦ Decreased performance ◦ Decreased communication/collaboration ◦ More complaints and grievances Organisational Consequences of Work-Related Stress Absenteeism Presenteeism Reduced job satisfaction, engagement & motivation Poorer performance and productivity Accidents and near-misses (e.g., Niven & Ciborowska, 2015) Turnover & Labour costs (replacements, hiring, training) Employee compensation claims Managing Stress at Work How do you cope with stress? Think about personal strategies you use to cope with stress (exam time!) What do you do that’s effective? Do you do anything that is ineffective or may have undesirable side-effects? Stress Coping Tactics What do people do to try to reduce stress? The efforts people make, through their behaviour and thoughts, to alter their environment and/or manage their emotions Problem-focused vs Emotion-focused coping tactics Adaptive vs Maladaptive coping tactics Personal Coping Strategies Problem focused Managing your work (time management, being more assertive/saying ‘no’) Cognitive coping strategies (constructive self-talk, thought stopping) Response focused Using your support network (venting, asking for advice, distraction) Managing your lifestyle (diet, exercise, sleep) Counselling Relaxation/meditation Maladaptive Withdrawal from the problem, withdrawing from social support, replacing one problem with another (smoking, alcohol, etc) Resources at Work Features of the person’s job/work situation and individual characteristics that enable them to withstand the impact of demands and achieve their work goals: Internal Resources: stress management skills, coping strategies, social skills etc. External Resources: control (e.g. decision latitude, autonomy), social support, etc. Social Resources & Social Support Social Network: People who are available and who can be asked for help; Social Support: supervisors and colleagues; Types of social support: ◦ Instrumental – e.g. taking on tasks; ◦ Informational – e.g. providing information; ◦ Emotional – showing empathy and understanding ◦ Appraisal – supporting the person’s decisions Organisational Interventions UK organisations increasingly try to manage staff stress and well-being CIPD statistics show that 42% of organisations now have an explicit strategy Intervention Target of intervention Primary The work environment Secondary How the worker copes with the work environment Tertiary Rehabilitating those with stress-related conditions Primary Interventions Usually targeted at problems faced by many employees rather than a single person Risk assessment to identify causes of stress Typical strategies involve redesigning tasks or work environment, changing work patterns, career development, providing feedback or support, establishing fairer procedures (Elkin & Rosch, 1990) Intervention Target of intervention Primary The work environment Secondary Interventions Also referred to as ‘inoculation’ treatment Assumption that organisation will not change so the employees has to But still a proactive approach dealing with stress before it happens Interventions include stress management training, cognitive behavioural therapy, relaxation training, job-related skills training Intervention Target of intervention Secondary How the worker copes with the work environment Tertiary Interventions Reactive rather than proactive approach, rehabilitation Usually focused on individual care in the form of Employee Assistance Programmes (EAPs) Very commonly used (31% of organisations according to CIPD) Strategies involve: Counselling; Illness-absence and return-to-work management policies. Intervention Target of intervention Tertiary Rehabilitating those with stress-related conditions 1. Job redesign intervention Environment Stressor Person Stress response Stimulus Response Stress Short-term adaption Long-term consequences 2. Stress regulation training 3. Rehabilitation Which Interventions Work Best? Primary interventions + Can reduce stress and improve organisational outcomes (Bond & Bunce, 2001) ◦ Same conditions may not elicit same response in all people ◦ Expensive and time-consuming Secondary interventions + May tackle feelings of stress better than primary interventions (Richardson & Rothstein, 2008) ◦ Unlikely to improve organisational outcomes Tertiary interventions + Cheaper and less disruptive + Defence against legal action ◦ Must wait for employees to become stressed Critical success factors Kompier et al. (1998) highlight common critical success factors across various types of interventions Employee involvement and participation in designing the intervention Providing employees with necessary skills and resources to get maximum benefit from the intervention Line management being supportive of the intervention Employees seeing the intervention as high quality and relevant Let’s Put it To the Test! Look at the University Stress Scale on Blackboard (in the same folder as the lecture slides) Individually, answer the 21 questions as honestly as you can Add the points (0-66 potential points) > 13 points is considered significant stress What Do You Think? You are under no obligation to talk about your scores or answers Does this scale reflect the sources of stress in your life? Do you think it’s helpful or useful? In Summary Stress is complicated and many-faceted, and can detrimentally impact individuals and organisations Main theories of work-related stress understand stress as: Structural approaches: A balance between the job demands and control we exercise over those demands Transactional theories: A transaction with our environment, where individuals appraise the environmental risks against their coping abilities Resource models: People are proactive in identifying potential stress and developing coping strategies and resources Some levels of stress can be manageable, and even motivate us and help us develop and grow Recommended Reading Core reading: Work Psychology: Understanding Human Behaviour in the Workplace. (Arnold et al., 2020). Chapter 8: Work-related stress and wellbeing (pp.228-275) Available support Tell someone. Talk to someone University support: https://www.studentsupport.manchester.ac.uk/taking-care/ 24 hour mental health helpline and wellbeing app: Health Assured Help in a crisis SafeZone app More available support Online support: Students Against Depression: https://www.studentsagainstdepression.org/ Greater Manchester Nightline: [email protected] - confidential listening and information service ran by specially trained volunteers. Aim to respond to emails within 48 hours. Helplines: Health Assured 24/7 Helpline: Freephone 0800 028 3766. www.studentsupport.manchester.ac.uk/taking-care/mental-health-helpline/ The Samaritans 24/7 Helpline: Freephone 116 123. www.samaritans.org/