Social Research Strategies (Quantitative and Qualitative Research) Chapter 2 PDF

Social research strategies (quantitative and qualitative research) chapter 2 Social Research Methods: Social research methods are not completely dependent on the views and preferences of the researcher employing them, but they are not neutral tools either: they are closely tied to various different...

Social research strategies (quantitative and qualitative research) chapter 2 Social Research Methods: Social research methods are not completely dependent on the views and preferences of the researcher employing them, but they are not neutral tools either: they are closely tied to various different ideas about the nature of social-scientific enterprise, in that researchers collect data in relation to something, and that something is often a theory– an idea about how or why things happen in a certain way. Learn from experience 2.1 Personal experience as a basis for research Choosing a topic that is from personal interest is what motivates you and keeps you engaging in the work and research. Theory is a significant factor and studies make the most significant contribution to existing knowledge when they are viewed in relation to theoretical concerns. It is therefore important that we reflect on the link between theory and research, and specifically the philosophical assumptions we make about the roles of theory and data–in other words, what can be known and how we can know it. This will inform our research design, the formulation of our research questions, and whether we collect qualitative or quantitative data (or indeed both) Theory and research 2.2 Characterizing the link between theory and research is not straightforward, for two main reasons. First, there is the question of what type of theory we are talking about. Second, there is the question of whether we collect data in order to test theories( a deductive approach) or to build theories(an inductive approach) Theory is important because it provides a background and justification for research being conducted, but it also provides a framework within which social phenomena can be understood and research findings can be interpreted. What type of theory? The term theory is used in many different ways, but its most common meaning is as an explanation for particular events or patterns that have been noticed. Examples of such theories with a higher level abstraction. Such as structural functionalism, symbolic, interactionism, critical theory. Merton (1967) -> grand theories : highly abstract and examples include structural functionalism Middle range theories: What is empiricism? The term empiricism is used in a number of different ways, but two stand out. First, it is used to mean a general approach to the study of reality that suggests that only knowledge gained through experience and the senses is acceptable. In other words, this position means that ideas must be subjected to rigorous testing before they can be considered ‘knowledge’. The second meaning is related to this and refers to a belief that gaining facts is a legitimate goal in its own right. Naive empiricism? Deductive and inductive theory They may use theory as a basis for their research, taking what is known as a deductive approach, or it may emerge following their research, known as an inductive approach. The deductive approach the researcher draws on what is known about a particular domain and on relevant theoretical ideas in order to deduce( come up with) a hypothesis(or hypotheses) a speculation that they can test empirically. Embedded within the hypothesis will be concepts that will need to be translated into researchable entities (often referred to as variables) Developing hypotheses: Developing hypotheses and ensuring that they can be tested also involves considering how data can be collected on each of the concepts that make up the hypothesis. Process of deduction: The inductive approach Some researchers choose to disregard the sequence outlined as the process of deduction and adopt an inductive approach. Here, theory is the outcome of research and is formed by drawing generalizable inferences out of observations. Deductive approach 1. Theory -> 2. Observations/Findings Inductive approach 1. Observations/Findings -> 2. Theory Theory testing When does inductive and deductive approach interact with each other? However, just as deduction involves an element of induction, the inductive process is likely to involve a degree of deduction. Once the researcher has carried out some theoretical reflection on a set of data they may want to collect further data in order to establish the condition in which a theory will and will not hold. This is often called iterative strategy and it involves moving back and forth between data and theory. Abductive reasoning: proposes a way of addressing the limitations of both deductive and inductive approaches. Abduction: Abduction acknowledges that the conclusions arising from an observation are plausible, but not completely certain. It can also be thought of as an inference to the best explanation–for example, you start with an observation or set of observations, such as smoke in your kitchen, and the reason that the most likely explanation is that you have burnt the dinner you had in the oven. Epistemological considerations Epistemological: In other words, the question of what is (or should be) seen as acceptable knowledge in a discipline. In social science, a central issue is whether the social world can and should be studied according to the same principles, procedures, and ethos as the natural sciences. The argument that social sciences should imitate the natural sciences in this way is associated with an epistemological position known as positivism What is positivism? Positivism is an epistemological position that argues for the use of natural science methods to study social reality and beyond. The term stretches beyond this principle, and different authors describe its elements in varying ways. It stands by the following principles: 1. Only phenomena, and therefore knowledge confirmed by the sense, can genuinely be considered as knowledge (a principle known as phenomenalism) 2. The purpose of theory is to generate hypotheses that can be tested so that they enable explanations of laws, patterns and regularities to be assessed (the principle of deductivism) 3. Knowledge is reached by gathering together facts that provide the basis of laws (principle of inductivism) 4. Science must(and presumably can) be conducted in a way that is value-free in other words that is objective 5. There is a clear distinction between scientific statements and normative statements –judgments about what is good or bad, and a true scientist should only make the former.  The last principle is implied by the first one because we cannot establish the truth or otherwise of normative statements by using the senses. What is Interpretivism? Interpretivism is the term often used to describe an alternative to the positivist epistemology that has dominated the social sciences for decades. It is based on the view that there are fundamental differences between people and the objects of the natural sciences. Weber’s point of the social sciences is to understand how people see and act in the human world and to examine the social conditions that are necessary for such views and actions to emerge. Phenomenology: This philosophical approach that focuses on how individuals make sense of the world around them and how, in particular, the philosopher is able to overcome their own preconceptions to better understand the phenomena that are associated with human consciousness. Symbolic interactionism: Symbolic interactionism(often associated with George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) as a further influence, this argue that an individual is continually interpreting the symbolic meaning of their environment(which includes the action of others) and acts on the basis of this meaning /these meanings. The process of interpretation: Taking an interpretative stance can mean that the researcher comes up with surprising findings that appear surprising outside the particular social context being studied. Double hermeneutic: This process of interpretation between the context of those researched and the context of the researcher is sometimes referred to as the double hermeneutic. 2.4 Ontological consideration What is Ontology? Ontology is the study of being, and social ontology is about the nature of social entities, for example organizations or culture. Ontology matters because, as social researchers, we are interested in understanding reality, our ontological stance will determine how we define that reality. The key questions for social scientists is whether social entities can and should be considered as 1)objective entities that exist separately to social actors (people), or 2) social constructions that have been and continue to be built up from the perception and actions of social actors. (These two positions are referred to respectively as objectivism and constructionism (sometimes called constructivism). What is objectivism? Objectivism is an ontological position that claims that social phenomena, their meanings, and the categories that we see in everyday discourse have an existence that is independent of, or separate from, social actors. What is constructionism? Constructionism (often referred to as constructivism) is an ontological position that asserts that social phenomena and their meaning are continually being created by social actors. It implies that social phenomena are not only produced through social interaction but are in a constant state of revision. What is intersectionality? Intersectionality is the idea that we all occupy positions within different social categories, including gender, social class, sexuality, and race, and these cannot be understood in isolation. They can all influence an individual's experience. Ontology and social research Ontology and social research, this cannot separate questions of social ontology from those about conducting social research. Ontological assumptions and commitments feed into the ways in which research questions are formulated and research is carried out. 2.5 Research strategy: quantitative and qualitative research It might seem as though the main difference between quantitative and qualitative research is that quantitative researchers use measurement and qualitative researchers do not but many writers have suggested that the differences go further and deeper. A summary of quantitative research would be that it Emphasis quantification in the collection and analysis of data; Involves a deductive approach to the relationship between theory and research, with an emphasis on testing theories; Has incorporated the practices and norms of the natural-scientific model and of positivism in particular; and Views social reality as an external, objective reality. A summary of qualitative research in the same broad, simple way, we would describe it as a research strategy that: Usually emphasize words rather than quantification in the collection and analysis of data; Emphasizes an inductive approach to the relationship between theory and research, focusing on generating theories;  Has rejected the practices and norms of the natural scientific model, and of positivism in particular, preferring to emphasize how individuals interpret their social world; and Views social reality as the constantly shifting creation of individual social actors. Research in focus 2.4 - Mixed methods research In this part is written how a clear case study of mixed methods projects to use qualitative and quantitative data and become greater than the sum of their parts. Clearly there can be significant advantages to combining qualitative and quantitative methods. 2.6 Further influences on how we conduct social research Values: Values reflects the personal beliefs or the feeling of a researcher, and there are different views about the extent to which they should influence research and whether we can control this at all, These views can be summarized as: The value-free approach The reflexive approach The conscious partially approach The Value-free approach: For value-free approach, stating that because (in Emile Durkheim's words) social facts should be treated as things, all ‘preconceptions must be eradicated’ The reflexive approach: Researchers who take the position that research cannot be value-free exercise reflexivity, This involves recognize the impact of their social location–that is, their gender, age, sexual orientation, ethnicity, education, background, and so on –on the kind of data that they produce and analyze during their research process. Argue that our values, preferences, and inclinators can exert an influence at many stages in the process of social research, including: Choice of research area; Formulation of research questions; Choice of method; Formulation of research design and data-collection techniques; Implementation of data collection; Analysis of data Interpretation of data conclusions; The conscious partiality approach: This third approach to the issue of values influencing research to argue for consciousness partially in other words, research that is knowingly and even deliberately influenced by values. Learn from experience 2.2 - Values on social research During the research done in the section of “learn from experience” the researcher has given her participants space to discuss their own perspectives, positioning, and subjective experience on their own terms. This approach has also prompted the research on the way she reflects on her own positionality and identity. Practical considerations: 1. The nature of your research question(s); 2. Whether much research has previously been done on your research topic; 3. The nature of the topic and / or the people being investigated Note; your choice of research strategy, design, or method must be tailored to the research question(s) you are investigating. If you are interested in a topic on which little or no research has been done in the past, a quantitative research approach may be difficult because you will not be able to draw on much existing literature and you may have difficulty in identifying the important concepts that you need to measure.