Chapter 2 Gender Identity, Role, and Development PDF

Chapter 2: Gender Identity, Role, & Development Prepared by: Chaim Cyril T. Bernasor Learning Objectives Examine the differences between male and female biological makeup; Distinguish the agents of socialization; Discuss the roles of culture and so...

Chapter 2: Gender Identity, Role, & Development Prepared by: Chaim Cyril T. Bernasor Learning Objectives Examine the differences between male and female biological makeup; Distinguish the agents of socialization; Discuss the roles of culture and socialization in the construction of gender, and; Expound the theories of socialization: Social Learning Theory and Cognitive Development  Introduction Hormones play a huge role in gender differences and the DNA is one of the main predictors of behavior as men and women. Women have evolved to be the carriers of children whilst men have evolved to be the providers for their families. Women have predetermined characteristics like being: more caring, protective and loyal than men Men have predetermined characteristics like being: more aggressive, competitive and dominant than women. I. Hormones: The Biological Cause of Gender Differences Hormones are chemicals in the body that regulate changes in our cells. This includes growth and is as a result very important in explaining our gender differences. Largely male hormone: testosterone and the largely female hormone: estrogen - they have effects in our bodies that lead men and women to act more like, well, men and women. There are differences between the brain structures of men and women (men have a larger hypothalamus) Connellan et al. (2000) showed that newborn girls were more interested in faces (suggesting superior social skills) whilst newborn boys were more excited by mechanical items.  I. Hormones: The Biological Cause of Gender Differences Testosterone Is the male sex hormone that is made in the testicles. Testosterone hormone levels are important to normal male sexual development and functions. During puberty (in the teen years), testosterone helps boys develop male features like body and facial hair, deeper voice, and muscle strength. Estrogen In addition to regulating the menstrual cycle, estrogen affects the reproductive tract, the urinary tract, the heart and blood vessels, bones, breasts, skin, hair, mucous membranes, pelvic muscles, and the brain. II. Chromosomes: The Fundamental Cause of Gender Differences Humans typically have 23 pairs of chromosomes (totaling 46) and on the two 23rd chromosomes the DNA that decides whether a newly fertilized ovum (egg) becomes a male or female is found. If the sperm that fertilized the ovum is carrying a Y chromosome, then the zygote (the name given to an egg that has just been fertilized) will contain both an X and a Y chromosome and the baby will be a boy. If the sperm carried an X chromosome, then the zygote will have two X chromosomes (XX) and become a girl. II. Chromosomes: The Fundamental Cause of Gender Differences At first, the embryo (the name given to a zygote that has started to develop) has the same sex organs whether it has XY or XX chromosomes. But 6 weeks after conception, Y chromosome in males changes that lead to the gonads becoming testicles. If the zygote has XX chromosomes then the gonads become ovaries This idea that both males and females start off with the same sex organs is where the common 'fact' that 'all men were once women' comes from. The gonads are the key producers for the sex hormones androgens (including testosterone) and estrogens which result in gender differences.  III. Psychological and social influences on gender identity Gender Identity an individual's personal sense of maleness or femaleness is his or her gender identity. Gender Role Outward expression of gender identity, according to cultural and social expectations. Either gender may live out a gender role (a man or a woman, for instance, can be a homemaker) but not a sex role, which is anatomically limited to one gender (only a woman can gestate and give birth).  III. Psychological and social influences on gender identity Gender identity appears to form very early in life and is most likely irreversible by age 4. Although the exact cause of gender identity remains unknown, biological, psychological, and social variables clearly influence the process. Genetics, prenatal and postnatal hormones, differences in the brain and the reproductive organs, and socialization all interact to mold a toddler's gender identity. The differences brought about by physiological processes ultimately interact with social‐learning influences to establish clear gender identity  III. Psychological and social influences on gender identity Gender identity is ultimately derived from chromosomal makeup and physical appearance, but this derivation of gender identity does not mean that psychosocial influences are missing. Gender socialization process whereby a child learns the norms and roles that society has created for his or her gender, plays a significant role in the establishment of her or his sense of femaleness or maleness. If a child learns she is a female and is raised as a female, the child believes she is a female; if a child is told he is a male and is raised as a male, the child believes he is male.  III. Psychological and social influences on gender identity Beginning at birth, most parents treat their children according to the appearance of their genitals. Children quickly develop a clear understanding that they are either female or male, as well as a strong desire to adopt gender‐appropriate mannerisms and behaviors. This understanding normally occurs within 2 years of age. In short, biology sets the stage, but children's interactions with social environments determine the nature of gender identity  III. Psychological and social influences on gender identity Developmentalists indicate that adults perceive and treat female and male infants differently. Parents do this in response to recipients of gender expectations as young children themselves. Traditionally, fathers teach boys how to fix and build things; mothers teach girls how to cook, sew, and keep house. Children then receive parental approval when they conform to gender expectations and adopt culturally accepted and conventional roles. All of these lessons are reinforced by additional socializing agents, such as the media. Learning gender roles always occurs within a social context, with the values of the parents and society being passed along to the children of successive generations.  Traditional Gender Stereotypes Feminine Masculine Not aggressive Gentle Aggressive Not at all talkative Dependent Sensitive to other's Independent Tough Easily Influenced feelings Not easily Less sensitive to Submissive Very desirous of influenced other's feelings Passive security Dominant Not very desirous of Home-oriented Cries a lot Active security Easily hurt Emotional Worldly Rarely cries emotionally Verbal Not easily hurt Logical Indecisive Kind emotionally Analytical Tactful Decisive Cruel Nurturing  IV. Gender Roles Gender Roles are both cultural and personal. Learning plays a role in this process of shaping gender roles. These gender schemas (refer to mental structures that organize incoming information according to gender categories and in turn lead people to perceive the world in terms of gender) are deeply embedded cognitive frameworks regarding what defines masculine and feminine. There are various socializing agents—educators, peers, movies, television, music, books, and religion—teach and reinforce gender roles throughout a child's life span, parents probably exert the greatest influence, especially when their children are very young.  IV. Gender Roles Socialization Agents are a combination of social groups and social institutions that provide the first experiences of socialization. Families, early education, peer groups, the workplace, religion, government, and media all communicate expectations and reinforce norms. Parents - are typically a child’s first source of information about gender. Starting at birth, parents communicate different expectations to their children depending on their sex. For example, a son may engage in more roughhousing with his father, while a mother takes her daughter shopping.  IV. Gender Roles Teachers - model gender roles and sometimes demonstrate gender stereotypes by responding to male and female students in different ways. For example, separating students by gender for activities or disciplining students differently depending on their gender may reinforce children’s developing beliefs and assumptions. Peers - peer interactions also contribute to gender socialization. Children tend to play with same- gender peers. Through these interactions, they learn what their peers expect of them as boys or girls. These lessons may be direct, such as when a peer tells the child that certain behavior is or is not "appropriate" for their gender.  IV. Gender Roles Media - including movies, TV, and books, teaches children about what it means to be a boy or a girl. The media conveys information about the role of gender in people’s lives and can reinforce gender stereotypes. For example, consider an animated film that depicts two female characters: a beautiful but passive heroine, and an ugly but active villain. This media model, and countless others, reinforce ideas about which behaviors are acceptable and valued (and which are not) for a particular gender.  IV. Three Major Theories Attributed to Person's Identity Cognitive- Psychoanalytic Social-Learning developmental Theory Theory Theory  IV. Psychoanalytic Theory Proposed by Sigmund Freud Says that our childhood experiences and unconscious desires influence behavior. Explained that children satisfy their basic biological motivations which were discovered through a treatment known as psychoanalysis, the examining of the unconscious. “Thus, psychoanalysis was the first comprehensive personality theory that attempted to explain the origins of what we now call gender”  Id/ Pleasure Principle Impulsive (and unconscious) part of our psyche that responds directly and immediately to basic urges, needs, and desires. Example: an infant is 100% id Ego/ Reality Principle Refers to one's reality testing and IV. Psychoanalytic Theory rationalization. Works to satisfy the id's desires in a manner that is realistic and socially appropriate He concluded that there were primary Super-ego/ Moralistic or Idealistic aspects of the psychoanalytic theory: Principle Refers to one's conscience, moral judgment/social). Ethical component of the personality and provides the moral standards by which the ego operates. Freud believed these 3 parts of the mind are in constant conflict because each part has a different primary goal. Sometimes, when the conflict is too much for a person to handle, his or her ego may engage in one or many defense mechanisms to protect the individual. IV. Psychoanalytic Theory The Stages of Psychosexual I. Oral Stage II. Anal Stage Development The stages of psychosexual development were developed and based upon an erogenous zone (an area or part of the body sensitive to stimulation that is a source of erotic or sexual feeling or pleasure.) III. Phallic Stage IV. Latency Stage If a stage is unsuccessful and not completed it meant that a child would become fixated on that erogenous zone and either over or under indulge once he or she becomes an adult V. Genital Stage  The Stages of Psychosexual Development Oral Stage: 0-2 years old Erogenous Zone: mouth through the erotic, rooting energy of sucking. The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking. Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the child), the child also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-biting.  The Stages of Psychosexual Development Anal Stage: 3 to 4 years old Erogenous Zone: anus During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bowel movements. Conflicts take place due to the child wanting to control retention and elimination. There is a conversion of involuntary to voluntary behavior and the first attempt at controlling instinctual impulses. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.  The Stages of Psychosexual Development Anal Stage Anal- Expulsive Personality Parents are too lenient: the child will derive pleasure and success from expulsion. Excessively sloppy, disorganized, reckless, careless, and defiant Anal- Retentive Personality Receives excessive pressure and punishment. Will experience anxiety over bowel movements; pleasure to withhold. Obsessively clean and orderly, and iintolerant of those are not. Very careful, stingy, withholding, obstinate, meticulous, conforming, and passive- agressive.  The Stages of Psychosexual Development Phallic Stage: to 6 years old Erogenous Zone: genitals Sexual identity is formed in the third early stage. It is during this stage that patterns were seen in males and were considered the norm, yet female patterns were somehow deviant. Gender role development occurs during this stage where identification takes place with the same-sex parent. It is at this age when castration anxiety creates fear resulting in Oedipal Conflict. Also, when boys are proud of their penis, and girls wonder why they don’t have one. The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy.  The Stages of Psychosexual Development Latent Stage: 6 years old to puberty Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are suppressed. Children develop social skills, values, and relationships with peers and adults outside of the family. The development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The stage begins around the time that children enter school and become more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests.  The Stages of Psychosexual Development Genital Stage: Puberty to Death Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the final stage, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life. Unlike many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the ego and superego were fully formed and functioning at this point. Teens in the genital stage of development are able to balance their most basic urges against the need to conform to the demands of reality and social norms The Stages of Psychosexual Development (Summary)  V. Social Learning Theory Emphasizes the importance of observing, modeling, and imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. It considers how both environmental and cognitive factors interact to influence human learning and behavior. The Social Learning Theory was proposed by Albert Bandura as a way of explaining how children acquire their gender identity based on the influence of other people (particularly their parents). The theory is based on outward motivational factors that argue that if a child receives positive reinforcement, then they are motivated to continue a particular behavior. If they receive punishment or disapproval, they will then tend to stop that behavior.  Bandura's Stages of Learning There are four stages that a child goes through when develop gender behavior. These are: Attention This is merely where the behavior is noticed and observed. Memory This is when the behavior is memorized and committed to memory. In order to learn from what we see, we have to retain that information. Imitation Practicing our response in our head or in actions can improve the way we respond. The behavior is performed or ‘reproduced’ based on imitating what they see around them. Motivation Their behavior is based on the desired consequences or what will be gained by the behavior, either immediately or in the near future.  Bandura's Stages of Learning Example Boy sees his friends playing sepak takraw. (Attention) He then memorizes how the game is played. (Memory) At school, he decides to join in a game. (Imitation) A teacher then comments on how good he is. (Motivation)  Bandura's Stages of Learning When aggressiveness in boys is met with acceptance, or a “boys will be boys” attitude, but a girl’s aggressiveness earns them little attention, the two children learn different meanings for aggressiveness as it relates to their gender development. Thus, boys may continue being aggressive while girls may drop it out of their repertoire. Socialization of children is one of the major causes of gender differences between boys and girls. Children are encouraged to do the appropriate sex-typed activities by the parents, media, and school.  VI. Kohlberg's Cognitive Developmental Theory of Gender It emphasizes cognition when understanding and explaining behavior. This theory gives importance to the internal states of the person as well as the environmental events; however, it is the thinking and perception that is the key factor. The term cognition refers to "knowledge" as well as "the process of knowing" Cognitive approach emphasizes: thoughts, feelings, thinking, values, expectations, etc. The theory proposes the interaction of mental schema and social experience in directing gender role behavior. The cognitive approach focuses on the child's "understanding". A child's understanding refers to the way he/she perceives and tackles a phenomenon. Information about gender is organized into sets of beliefs about the sexes i.e. gender schema. Gender schema (plural schemata or schemas) is a mental framework that organizes and guides a child understands of information relevant to gender.  I. Gender Identity: 0-2 years old It is when the child recognizes they are male or female and other people are as well. VI. Kohlberg's Cognitive Developmental Theory of Gender II. Gender Stability: 3-4 years old Denotes the child now understands that their gender is fixed and will be The basic principle of the theory is that a male/female when they're older. child's understanding of gender develops with age. As part of the theory, Kohlberg identified III. Gender Constancy: 5-7 years old three stages in gender development: It is the stage when the child understands that cosmetic changes will not alter sex. For example, a girl wearing jeans is still female or a man putting on a dress is still a man.  Summary Hormones play a huge role in gender differences. Biological aspects create a critical interplay with gender roles pursued by an individual. Biological makeup may play a major part in an individual’s gender identity, however, psychosocial and societal factors still influence an individual’s view of himself/herself. Gender roles are both cultural and personal. It may be derived directly from the environment affecting the individual, however, the personal experiences of the person also play a crucial part in his or her gender role discovery.