Causes of the French Revolution PDF

# Chapter 2: Causes of the French Revolution ## Focus On: * Challenges to the traditional absolute power of the French monarchy * The role of the economy in creating unrest in France prior to 1789 * The power of populist support for political change created by the meeting of the Estates General....

# Chapter 2: Causes of the French Revolution ## Focus On: * Challenges to the traditional absolute power of the French monarchy * The role of the economy in creating unrest in France prior to 1789 * The power of populist support for political change created by the meeting of the Estates General. ## Timeline | Date | Event | |---|---| | 1774 | Louis XVI ascends the throne of France. | | 1775-1783 | War of American Independence | | 1788 | Assembly of Notables convenes. | | 1788 | The Estates General is called. | | 5 May 1789 | The Estates General convenes at Versailles. | | 17 June 1789 | The National Assembly is established. | | 20 June 1789 | The Tennis Court Oath | | 27 June 1789 | The nobles and clergy join the third estate in the National Assembly. | | 14 July 1789 | Parisians storm the Bastille. | ## Political Background **Cardinal Richelieu** When Henri IV of France (1553-1610) was assassinated by a madman, he was succeeded by his nine-year-old son, Louis, whose mother, Marie de Medici, acted as regent. During the reign of Louis XIII (1601-1643) power was centralized in France primarily by the work of the powerful statesman, Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642). Richelieu became involved in government through his friendship with Marie de Medici as her official advisor and then as chief minister of state to the king, eventually becoming the real power behind the throne. In the initial years of the regency the diverse factions of the upper classes clamoured for power and in 1614 the Estates General was called. However, there were so many conflicting interests among them that agreement could not be reached on any issue, and in 1615 the assembly was dismissed by Marie de Medici. It would not be called again until the eve of revolution. France would be ruled by an absolute monarchy until the revolutionary upheaval of 1789. Until his death, Cardinal Richelieu worked to centralize and strengthen government and to abolish all opposition to the Crown. In 1624 Richelieu gained a place in the king's council and very quickly exerted his influence and came to dominate the administration. The young king, Louis XIII, fell under his control. The queen regent was eventually banished in a failed attempt to overthrow the cardinal. Richelieu sought to centralize government by weakening the nobles, by strengthening mercantilism, and by destroying the power of the French Protestants, the Huguenots. Thus, intendants, or administrative officers, directly responsible to the Crown were installed in the provinces to replace those nobles who had previously had control over local jurisdictions. Trading companies were supported by the government-wholesale merchants were even allowed to purchase noble status by making payments to the royal exchequer. Richelieu controlled these ### **Edict of Nantes-1598** * When Henri IV (Henri of Navarre) was Protestant when he came to the throne in 1589. Civil wars between Protestants and Catholics still raged across France. Recognizing that the majority of French were still Catholic and that he would never be accepted in Paris as a Protestant, Henri renounced his Protestant beliefs, sought papal absolution, and turned to the Catholic Church. In 1598 he issued the Edict of Nantes granting religious and civil liberties to French Protestants, or Huguenots. Protestant services could now be held openly in towns where Protestantism prevailed and these towns could be defended by Protestant forces. This provision allowed the creation of about 100 Protestant strongholds, most of which were in southwest France. Protestants could run for public office and they could expect equal treatment before the law. Paris remained exclusively Catholic. Those towns that were predominantly Catholic did not have to allow Protestant services. When the Edict of Nantes was revoked by Louis XIV, it led to persecution of the Huguenots. ## **Century Of Change** * **The Treaty of Utrecht ended the War of the Spanish Succession. Britain emerged from the war as a major international power, having won Newfoundland and Acadia from France.** ### **Louis XIV** * During the reign of Louis XIV (1643-1715) the French state was truly consolidated. "L'état, c'est moi" ("I am the state") summarizes the centralization of power in the person of Louis XIV, who is often referred to as Le Roi Soleil, The Sun King. The monopoly of law and military force defined the system of political absolutism as practised in France in the seventeenth century. * Despite inefficiencies in tax collection, the mercantilist policies of the finance minister Jean Colbert encouraged the development of glass, tapestry, and silk industries. Guilds were regulated to ensure high-quality goods in the hope that foreign buyers would purchase more merchandise. With this tight government control, the French economy did not develop the private enterprise characteristics that had fueled the English economy, but it did show some improvement in growth during the seventeenth century. Two events late in Louis's reign, however, proved detrimental to the French economy. First, in 1685, he revoked the Edict of Nantes, making it impossible for Huguenots to live openly in France. They could no longer worship freely and were persecuted viciously. As a result, many left France for Protestant countries such as Holland or England. Since the Huguenots who left were predominantly involved in commerce, industry, or the professions, their loss dealt a severe blow to the French economy. Conversely, countries that received them benefitted from the industry of the Huguenot immigrants. The second event was the fourth in a series of wars that Louis fought from 1667 onward in his attempt to dominate Europe. In 1701 the War of the Spanish Succession began in an attempt to prevent a French king from succeeding to the throne of Spain after the death of Charles II who died childless. Prior to Charles's death the major powers had decided to divide Spain between France and Austria in an attempt to maintain the balance of power on the continent. But in his will, Charles had determined that the Spanish crown should be offered first to France (Louis's grandson, Philip of Anjou) and if not accepted by France then to Austria. When Louis XIV accepted the throne for his grandson, the alarm bells sounded among other European countries-France was getting too powerful. Great Britain formed a Grand Alliance with Holland and Austria and they declared war on France, the War of the Spanish Succession. They would later be joined by Portugal and Savoy. The war was long and costly for both sides and ended in 1713 with a treaty, the Peace of Utrecht. The main result of the treaty was the establishment of a balance of power accomplished by dividing the Spanish empire. The Spanish throne and Spain's American possessions went to Louis XIV's grandson, who was crowned Philip V. Austria received the Spanish Netherlands (the future state of Belgium), Milan, Naples, and Sicily. Savoy received Sardinia. Great Britain remained in Gibraltar and annexed the island of Minorca. France gave up Newfoundland and Acadia in Canada to Great Britain. Great Britain, recently born from the union of England and Scotland in 1707, emerged as a major international power from these events. France, despite its losses, shared a balance of power with Great Britain on the European continent. Despite its retention of international prestige and status as a major power, France suffered a severe economic blow as a result of the War of Spanish Succession. Additionally, the Sun King died in 1715, soon after his bid for European domination was thwarted. His great-grandchild, the new king, Louis XV, was only five years old. His uncle Philippe II, duc d' Orléans, stepped in as regent. He was faced with enormous war debts and a nobility clamouring for a share of political power. ## **Divine Right of Kings** * Bishop Bossuet, church leader to the court of Louis XIV, wrote a book in 1709 that advanced the theory that all power comes from God and, as such, kings were God's representatives on earth. This "divine right" to govern prevented citizens from defying the king's authority-to do so could be likened to defiance of God. The doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings was taught by the clergy and was supposed to result in a just authority that reflected God's will. It supported absolute monarchy, meaning that the Crown was free from interference by the parlements (law courts) or citizen groups within the country. ### **Louis XV** * Louis XV reigned from 1715 to 1774. He had neither the will nor the talent of his predecessor although he was still an absolute monarch. His weakness, coupled with the events of the Enlightenment era, contributed to the gradual decline of the French monarchy. The social climate was changing too. During his reign political, economic, and social change was discussed in the salons of Paris and other major French cities. The discussions of ideas that challenged the existing political and social structure became popular entertainment for the bourgeoisie. The economic climate was affected by several factors: the crippling losses from the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), which France fought both in Europe against Prussia and in North America against Britain, in the American War of Independence (1775-1783), and the ongoing inability of the French government to raise enough revenue to finance its administration adequately. These created the economic climate that would eventually lead to revolution. * The restoration of the parlements by Louis XVI was also a factor that brought France closer to revolution. The centralization of power in the monarchy by Richelieu in the late seventeenth century had eroded the power of the nobility. They were left with only the privileges accorded to citizens of noble birth and some ceremonial functions which were granted to members of the nobility. Before Richelieu's consolidation of royal power, the nobles had been in charge of the local affairs in their own territories. As a result of his reorganization, administrative powers were transferred to administrators, or intendants, who were directly responsible to the Crown. As well, a system of royal courts of law called parlements had grown in France. The parlements were legal and judicial institutions. They registered the king's edicts. The most important of these was the Parlement du Paris because it received the king's edicts first and had jurisdiction over one third of France. Failure to register the king's edicts would result in confrontation between the king and the parlement in a lit de justice (a special meeting of the parlement in which the king presided to dictate his wishes). Magistrates of the parlements were nobles who had bought their offices. This system contributed to venality and to the continuation of tax exemptions for the nobility. It was generally accepted that the king's will prevailed but the parlementaires could amend legislation before registering it. They usually did so in order to protect the rights and privileges of their class, the nobility and the clergy. They were often in opposition to the Crown. In an attempt to reform the system in 1771, Louis XV's chancellor, René Nicolas de Maupeou, sent the magistrates of the Parlement du Paris into exile at Troyes and replaced them with individuals sympathetic to the Crown. Unfortunately, the parlements had developed the myth that they were defenders of public justice. Hence they had the support of a substantial portion of the populace. When Louis XVI came to the throne in 1774, pressure was exerted on him to restore the parlements in their traditional fashion. The attempted judicial reform was short-lived and its failure had a great deal to do with creating a judicial climate favourable to revolution. ## **Social Conditions in the Old Regime** * The population of France grew from 18 million to 26 million people between 1715 and 1789. As France was still an agrarian nation with an underdeveloped industrial base, this population increase placed tremendous pressures on the peasant class. The burgeoning population was a negative factor whenever harvest failures occurred and bread shortages inevitably resulted. Those fortunate enough to buy bread would pay a much higher price than that charged in times of plenty. Landless peasants unable to find work in rural areas drifted into Paris. There, at least 10 percent of the population was always unemployed and in times of crisis this number rose to 50 percent. French society in the l'ancien régime (old regime) was classified into three estates, or groups. The first and highest estate was the clergy, the second estate was the nobility, and the third estate was everyone else. While some of the rights and privileges of the nobility and the clergy derived from medieval times, their privileged position had developed during the years when the French economy made the transition from an agricultural economy to a capitalist economy. All levels of society benefitted from some measure of privilege, although the extent of privileges extended to the first and second estates greatly exceeded that accorded the third estate. ### **First Estate: Clergy** * About 100 000 people, or 0.5 percent of France's population, belonged to the first estate. However, the Roman Catholic Church owned in excess of 10 percent of the land and also collected income and feudal taxes on this property. In addition to property revenues, the clergy were entitled to the tithe, 10 percent of everyone's income. The church also owned much commercial property. In total, the Church's income amounted to roughly one-half of that received by the royal government. Despite such enormous wealth, the Church was not required to pay tax but rather was given the privilege of voting a gift to the king every five years. This "free gift" generally amounted to about 5 percent of its revenue. ### **Second Estate: Nobility** * About 390 000 people, or 1.5 percent of France's population, were nobles. About one-half were nobles-of-the-sword, a distinction that meant that the title was won during medieval times. Nobles-of-the-sword considered themselves to be the only true nobility in France. The rest of the nobility was divided as follows: nobles-of-the-robe, to denote those who held royal, judicial, or administrative posts; nobles-of-the-bell to denote those who held municipal office; and the anoblis who had simply purchased their titles, often with no duties attached. A separate category called hoberaux ("sparrow hawks") were nobles who had lost their wealth and were reduced to seeking a commission in the army for their support. * Eighteenth century France was rife with inequity and the nobility benefitted handsomely from this condition. The nobility was characterized by superior status, social prestige, and, most of all, the privileges of special rights or exemptions from duties or taxes. The highest nobles were allowed to live at Versailles and participate in royal occasions. Only the nobility could become officers in the army or attain judicial or administrative posts. Nobles were allowed the exclusive privilege of hunting without any concern for damage they might cause to the peasants' crops. If charged with a civil crime they were usually excused. If a capital offense was committed, they were allowed the choice of decapitation over the more tortuous death by hanging. * Tax exemptions accorded the nobles were substantial. They were not required to pay the taille, a property tax, or the corvée, required labour which was assessed for road construction. They escaped much of the gabelle, or salt tax, and the franc-fief, which was assessed on the transfer of feudal property. While they were legally obligated to pay the more recent vingtièmes, a universal tax on income, they were often able to bribe the intendant into adjusting the amount. The nobility, like the clergy, was not united in its loyalty to the king or to the traditions of the Old Regime. The most vocal of the liberal element, such as the Marquis de Lafayette, the Comte de Mirabeau, and the Duc d'Orléans, were included as representatives to the Estates General and would eventually contribute to the demise of their class. ### **Third Estate** * Ninety-eight percent of the population of the Old Regime were members of the third estate (about 27 million people). They were from such widely disparate groups as wealthy bourgeoisie, professionals, artisans, city workers, wealthy peasant landowners, and landless peasants. For purposes of organization in attempting to understand the third estate, we will establish three groups within it: the bourgeoisie, urban workers, and peasants. #### **Bourgeoisie** * The term bourgeois denotes membership in the oligarchy of a bourg, or town. To be a member of the bourgeoisie one might be a very wealthy financier or a shopkeeper, artisan, lawyer, or bureaucrat. One of the most lucrative ventures for this group was to become a member of the Farmers General, an organization of 60 tax directors who collected taxes for the Crown. By agreeing to turn over a specified amount to the Crown they were allowed to collect whatever they could and to keep anything in excess of this specified amount. It was not uncommon for these tax farmers to collect double the amount levied by the Crown. The system allowed a guarantee to the Crown but was open to abuse. In their zeal, many tax directors used brutal intimidation to extract the taxes. This privilege of tax collection was the most lucrative privilege accorded the bourgeoisie. Many among the bourgeoisie aspired to nobility and some bought positions such as membership in the parlements that conferred noble status to the family. Enterprising businessmen desirous of joining the nobility invested in land and bought offices that carried a title, using their money to advance their social position rather than to expand their business. #### **Urban Workers** * Paris was France's largest city in the eighteenth century with a population of 650 000. Marseilles and Lyons each had about 100 000 people and no other city exceeded 50 000. France was still predominantly an agricultural country economically; the majority of French industries such as wine, liquor, and luxury goods were tied to agriculture. It lagged behind England in industrial development. The guild system tightly controlled the number of workers allowed to rise from apprenticeship to journeyman to the masters level. Most guild workers remained at the journeyman level for life but, compared to other workers, they were relatively well paid and reasonably secure. The most tenuous existence was that of unskilled workers, often peasants who moved into the city when they could no longer eke out a living in the countryside. They were fortunate to find work that paid a subsistence wage. In times of economic crises, thousands of them starved to death in the streets of Paris. This group swelled the angry mobs that rioted and looted during the most volatile days of the revolution. #### **Peasants** * Peasants made up about 86 percent of France's population. This was a widely diverse group, however, with a few wealthy peasant farmers, a great many small landowners, sharecroppers or renters, and a number of landless peasants who worked as day labourers. They were assessed the taille, or property tax; the corvée, or road tax; the vingtièmes, a tax on income; an assortment of feudal dues depending on the region in which they lived; and the tithe to the Church. The total tax bill could amount to as much as 70 percent of a peasant's income. In spite of the fact that the bulk of the taxation fell on the peasantry, they were supportive of the monarchy and were loyal to the Roman Catholic Church. Except for isolated instances such as the Great Fear of 1789 (see Chapter 3) and their involvement in the army, they lived routine lives while the revolution raged in the cities. ## **Economic Conditions Leading Up To 1789** * The complex and inequitable system of taxation certainly contributed to the economic crisis that precipitated the French Revolution. Since the time of Louis XIV, France had lived beyond its means. However, the critical issue in 1789 stemmed from the government's inability to resolve a financial crisis. The crippling debt incurred during France's participation in the American War of Independence was compounded by harvest failures, famine, and the failure of the Assembly of Notables to sanction tax reform. The result was a bankrupt treasury incapable of financing even the day-to-day operations of government. When Louis XVI ascended the throne in 1774, he claimed that what he wanted most was to be loved by his subjects. Perhaps this desire is what led him to dismiss Maupeou, Louis XV's chancellor who had abolished the old parlements and taxed the privileged, and to restore the parlements to their original status. While this move was immensely popular among members of the first estate as the parlements jealously guarded the privileges of the aristocracy, this action ensured the failure of any financial reforms. The privileged classes would remain free of new taxation. The first comptroller-general of finance in Louis XVI'S government was the economist and statesman A.R.J. Turgot (1727-1781), a philosophe, a former intendant, and a physiocrat. He embarked on a program of tax reform which eliminated the worst abuses of the tax farmers, abolished the guilds which were privileged monopolies, freed grain from internal tariffs in the hope that greater productivity would result, and planned to replace the corvée with a tax on all three estates. He began a review of the whole tax system. It was an ambitious program and initially had the support of the king, but the Parlement du Paris, the Church, and the provincial nobles, all opposed him. Also, in the summer of 1775, the "Flour War" erupted. Harvest failures in the preceding year had resulted in grain shortages and much higher prices for bread. Peasants and urban workers took to the streets, seized bakeries and demanded that bread prices be controlled. Turgot was blamed. Rumours suggested that his reforms had led to the hoarding of grain and subsequent high prices. In 1776 Turgot resigned and his attempts at reforms vanished with him. By recalling the parlements the king had made reform impossible. The Swiss-born banker, Jacques Necker (1732-1804), replaced Turgot. A brilliant financier with excellent banking connections, Necker engineered the financing for the French participation in the American War of Independence. Rather than raise taxes, Necker borrowed all the money required for the war effort. By the end of the war, interest on the loans amounted to 50 percent of the yearly revenue. In 1781 he published the compte rendu ("the royal budget") and gave French people their first glimpse of the sorry state of the royal finances. The king was outraged and Necker resigned soon after. Joly de Fleury was comptroller from 1781-1783. He was successful in putting through the third vingtième, a tax on income, but was otherwise a nonentity. He was replaced by Charles Calonne who borrowed heavily, increased taxation, and until 1786 gave the government the appearance of affluence. However, by 1786, France's credit was exhausted and there appeared to be no solution other than increased taxes. As the crisis grew Calonne put forward a plan to the king for reform which included a general tax on all landowners without exception in place of the taille; abolition of the corvée, and the reform of the gabelle, or salt tax, and indirect taxes; the removal of internal customs duties to stimulate economic growth, and the creation of a state bank. He also proposed the establishment of provincial assemblies in which all estates would have equal representation. To support his reforms, knowing the Parlement du Paris would not, Calonne convened a superior body, the Assembly of Notables. The Assembly of Notables was a group of 144 individuals who came from all over France: princes, archbishops, bishops, nobles, parlementaires, intendants, and representatives of provincial estates and cities. Louis XVI and Calonne were convinced that this aristocratic assembly would support their proposed reforms. The king was alarmed to learn that they refused to consider any tax reforms without a radical revision of the governing system. They wanted concessions and a share of government control. There was a deadlock. Led by individuals like the Duc d'Orléans and the Marquis de Lafayette, the Assembly of Notables suggested a meeting of the Estates General. The Estates General was a representative body that had not met since 1614. Calonne was dismissed by the king and fled to England where he became known as the "first émigré of the Revolution." The parlements won again. ### **Calling of the Estates General** * The office of comptroller-general was then given to Lomenie de Brienne, archbishop of Toulouse, who modified Calonne's proposals prior to presenting them to the assembly. In July 1787 Brienne asked the Parlement du Paris to register the tax on property of all three estates. The Parlement refused and France entered a year of intense conflict between the royal government and the parlements. On 5 July 1788, with the government at a standstill, and in spite of his misgivings, Louis gave in to the demands of the nobility and issued an edict calling the Estates General to convene the following May, the first time since 1614. With this act, the aristocracy unwittingly signed its own death warrant. The nobles actually had some liberal ideas but they mistakenly believed that they could control the workings of the Estates General as they had before. After all, the Parlement du Paris had ruled that the Estates General would be assembled on the same basis as it had in 1614, with each of the three estates sitting separately and voting as a block. After Calonne's departure, Louis reappointed Necker as comptroller in an attempt to avert bankruptcy of the royal treasury. Necker was popular with the bourgeoisie. In December, Necker convinced Louis XVI to double the representation in the third estate in an attempt to appease the demands of the bourgeoisie for an equal voice. In January of 1789, the Abbé Sieyès wrote a pamphlet titled "What is the Third Estate?" In it, the abbé denounced the nobility and said that the third estate was the most significant estate-in fact, it was the nation. His words became the battle cry of the bourgeoisie. Doubling the representation in the third estate was futile, however, without changing the method of voting from vote by bloc to vote by head. Male adults over the age of 25 could vote. Other qualifications for voting included ownership of property, payment of tax amounting to six livres, or holding a responsible position. Only women owning feudal lands were allowed to vote and then only by proxy. The king was confident that the first and second estates would remain loyal to the Crown. As well, the rural peasantry was traditionally loyal to the Crown. The third estate, however, elected a disproportionate number of lawyers, and no workers or peasants. As a result, the composition of the third estate reflected the liberal bourgeois attitudes of the Enlightenment rather than the traditional conservative view held by the peasants. Louis XVI asked that the people draw up lists of grievances, or cahiers, to indicate their concerns and requests for change. A general demand voiced in the cahiers was ## **American Revolution. 1775-1783** * Reflecting on the success of the American Revolution, the eighteenth century British writer Arthur Young wrote, "The American Revolution has laid the foundation of another in France, if government does not take care of itself." He was referring not only to the economic conditions in France that suggested revolution, but to the intellectual impact of liberty on the 9000 Frenchmen who fought alongside the Americans to establish a new and independent nation. As such, the American Revolution had a far-reaching significance in Europe. The American Revolution, often called the War of American Independence, grew out of the American colonies' refusal to bow to the British demands for taxation without representation in Parliament. From the Revenue Act of 1764, when an attempt was made to impose a tax on sugar, to the Regulating Act of 1773, which cut American tea merchants out of the British tea trade, the Americans and their colonial masters argued bitterly over economic issues. The American Revolution officially began when the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence on 4 July 1776, although fighting had begun in 1775. Initially, France's involvement was confined to the provision of weaponry. However, after the American victory at Saratoga in 1778, the French government saw the possibility of success and formally joined the Americans by declaring war against Britain. By the time the Treaty of Paris was signed in 1783 to end the war, France had borrowed 1500 million livres to finance its involvement in it. Interest payments on this amount of money totalled 50 percent of the French government's total revenue and became a significant factor in France's inability to resolve its financial difficulties during the reign of Louis XVI. for the development of a constitution (a written constitution was not requested). The other major point of agreement was the demand for equality of taxation. Many of the cahiers from urban areas wanted individual rights, while rural cahiers were concerned with the nobles' hunting rights and the use of pigeon hutches. Examination of the cahiers suggested that the representation of the third estate was much more radical than the majority of the French population. A clear distinction between the rural conservative peasantry and their more radical urban counterparts was now quite evident. The Estates General was greeted by Louis XVI in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles on 2 May 1789. A formal procession was conducted in which Louis greeted each of the representatives. Then on 5 May the meeting convened with an opening speech by the king, followed by a long and tiring analysis on France's financial condition by Necker. Neither speech inspired any confidence in the leadership ability of the Crown. Following the opening, each estate was asked to meet separately to validate the credentials of its representatives. ## **National Assembly** * The first and second estates recognized that the maintenance of privilege rested on the continuation of traditional voting patterns and as such they carried out the king's orders to meet separately. The third estate, however, wished all representatives to meet as a single assembly and vote by head. It refused to give in to the king's demands to accede to the rules for the meeting and instead began to lobby the other two estates to move with them to a single-house assembly which would vote as individuals and work toward the completion of a written constitution. The nobles remained united but a small number of clergy moved to the third estate meeting. By 17 June the third estate felt that it was powerful enough to declare itself the "National Assembly," and it requested that the other two orders join them in this revolutionary move. On 20 June 1789, the third estate was locked out of its meeting room as preparations were being made for a royal session of all three estates on 22 June. Confused and angry, the delegates met instead at an indoor tennis court on the palace grounds and signed an oath not to disband until they had drawn up a constitution for France. The Tennis Court Oath signals the beginning of the French people's refusal to bow to the absolute authority of the king. The revolution had begun. Meanwhile, the royal session went ahead as planned, on 23 June 1789. The king granted concessions based on the demands of the cahiers. He further agreed that all three orders should meet together and vote by head on any issue except those which would affect the privileges of the first and second estates. Louis was acknowledging the people of France and seemed to be moving toward the creation of a constitutional monarchy. However, he was committed to maintaining each of the three orders and assembled troops in the area of Paris to provide support. On 27 June 1789, when the self-styled National Assembly refused to adjourn, Louis ordered the nobles and clergy to join the third estate in the National Assembly. They began working on a constitution. As news of the third estates' defiance of the king spread, angry mobs roamed the countryside. Bread prices had reached a new high and grain convoys that transported food to the cities were ransacked by angry peasants. (Wages were low and unemployment was high. Labour trouble had broken out in April.) In an attempt to maintain law and order, 20 000 Swiss and German mercenaries were brought to Paris from the provincial garrisons. Louis gained confidence as the troops assembled and on 11 July he dismissed the popular Necker. This did not produce the desired effect for the king as both the army presence and the dismissal of Necker angered the people and encouraged further violence. ### **Fall of the Bastille** * On 14 July 1789, Paris erupted. The crowd, determined to arm itself, first assailed the Invalides fortress from which they obtained 30 000 muskets. They then moved on to the Bastille, an old fortress prison which had long been viewed as a symbol of the king's absolute authority. There, the governor of the Bastille, Count de Launey, met them. The angry mob demanded arms and freedom for the hordes of prisoners believed to be within its walls and attacked the small garrison of soldiers. De Launey capitulated and the revolution of the people moved forward another step. They discovered upon entering the Bastille that there was no large storehouse of weaponry and that it housed only seven prisoners. Louis XVI responded to the fall of the Bastille by recalling Necker. He also ordered his troops to return to the provinces. The Paris militia, now called the National Guard, was put under the command of the Marquis de Lafayette, a general who would soon be more loyal to the National Assembly than to the king. To symbolize the juncture of the king and the Paris militia, Lafayette designed a new insignia for the troops-the tricolour-with the white of the royal family and the red and blue of the Paris militia. The Tennis Court Oath signified the inability of the king to maintain absolute authority. Now, with the fall of the Bastille and the National Assembly growing in power, the revolution gained momentum. France would undergo radical change in the course of the next ten years as the revolution dramatically altered the face of the nation. ## **Summary** * The Old Regime in France was characterized by absolute monarchy, mercantilist economics, and a rigidly stratified social system. Enlightenment thought suggested that change in the political, economic, and social systems in France was essential but the upper classes supported the king's refusal to consider any of these ideas. * The Bourbon monarchy ruled without input from the citizens of France. The system of intendants which was implemented by Richelieu in the seventeenth century provided for centralized control of the country. King Louis XVI believed his responsibility was to rule absolutely. * Only four percent of French society had privileges in the Old Regime. The nobility and the clergy were allowed tax exemptions, access to governmental roles, and a variety of feudal privileges. The agricultural peasants and urban workers suffered excessive taxation and subsistence living. However, it was the upper level of the third estate, the bourgeoisie, who agitated most aggressively for change. The bourgeoisie were professionals, artisans, or business-people. While many had achieved great wealth, they were denied a political voice. Economic issues were a critical factor in the outbreak of revolution in France. From the time of Louis XIV, France had spent more money than it received in revenue. During the eighteenth century, French participation in the Seven Years' War and the American War of Independence contributed to a crippling debt. The inequitable tax system, and the government's inability to resolve its financial crisis, contributed to the king's decision to call the Estates General. Once together, the third estate, supported by a small number of clergy, formed the National Assembly. The king's authority was challenged with the group's decision to remain united until a constitution was drawn up. By 14 July 1789, the revolution had turned violent with the storming of the Bastille. Louis XVI was unable to retain military control and was forced to acknowledge the Paris militia under the leadership of Lafayette. For the next ten years France endured the upheaval of revolution. ## **Questions** 1. Explain the concept of absolute monarchy. How did absolutism tend to limit attempts at reform? 2. Briefly explain the causes and course of events of the War of Spanish Succession. What was the most significant result of this conflict for France? 3. Explain how foreign wars contributed to the insurmountable French debt. 4. Explain the role of the intendant in the French administrative system. 5. What were the parlements? How did they contribute to the absolute power of the monarch and the system of privilege which existed in France? 6. Name and describe the three estates which existed in the Old Regime in France. 7. What sources of income did the Roman Catholic Church possess? Explain the "free gift" required of the Church by the king. 8. Make a list of the privileges enjoyed by the nobility of France. Assess the impact of these privileges on the peasant. 9. What three groups made up the third estate? Describe each group. 10. List the taxes imposed on the peasant. Evaluate the justice of this tax load in relationship to the second estate. 11. Explain why the practice of purchasing noble status was considered detrimental to the French economy. 12. Make a chart of the economic reforms attempted by Turgot, Necker, de Fleury, Calonne, and de Brienne. Which reforms were approved by the king? Which were not? Why did the attempt at economic reform do nothing to solve the problem of France's growing debt? 13. Why did Louis XVI call the Estates General? 14. What were the cahiers? Name three demands which were voiced in the cahiers. 15. Explain the difference between the traditional "vote by bloc" and the desired "vote by head" in the Estates General. Why was "vote by head" so important to the third estate? 16. What was the Tennis Court Oath? What was the significance of this event? 17. Why did the Paris mob attack the Bastille? What was the significance of this attack? Why do you think historians would consider this a critical event in the origin of the French Revolution? ## **Analysis** 1. There is a myth which suggests that the Bastille (the old fortress prison) was filled with political prisoners in 1789. Research the Bastille. Assess its role in the Old Regime. What was its status in 1789. What prisoners were captive when the Bastille was stormed on 14 July 1789? Evaluate the significance of the prison in relationship to the idea of revolution for the average Parisian citizen. 2. Analyze the revenue and expenditures of the French government in