Introduction to Psychology PSYC 1200 (A01) PDF

Introduction to Psychology PSYC 1200 (A01) This PowerpointTM presentation is the exclusive copyright of Ryan Langridge at the University of Manitoba. These slides and the accompanying lecture may only be used by students enrolled in PSYC 1200, A01, Summer 2023, at the University of Manitoba. Audio a...

Introduction to Psychology PSYC 1200 (A01) This PowerpointTM presentation is the exclusive copyright of Ryan Langridge at the University of Manitoba. These slides and the accompanying lecture may only be used by students enrolled in PSYC 1200, A01, Summer 2023, at the University of Manitoba. Audio and/or video recording in any format is not allowed without official permission of Ryan Langridge. Unauthorized or commercial use of these lectures, including uploading to sites outside of the University of Manitoba servers, is expressly prohibited. Violations of these and other Academic Integrity principles will lead to disciplinary action. © Ryan Langridge Defining and Classifying Psychological Disorders Abnormal Psychology • Psychological study of mental illness • Does a person have thoughts, feelings, or behaviours that are maladaptive? • Maladaptive • Causing distress to oneself or others • Impairing day-to-day functioning • Increasing the risk of injury or harm to oneself or others • Not all forms of maladaptive behaviours respond to the same types of treatment © Ryan Langridge Defining and Classifying Psychological Disorders The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) • A standardized manual to help diagnose psychological disorders • Created by the American Psychiatric Association during World War II • Current Version: DSM-5-TR (2022) • Divides mental illnesses into 19 categories, each containing subtypes • Changes associated with current version → defines disorders on a continuum/scale • E.g.: ‘Asperger’s syndrome’ now considered a form of autism spectrum disorder © Ryan Langridge Defining and Classifying Psychological Disorders Challenges Associated with Classifying Behaviour • How can we distinguish a ‘normal behaviour’ from a ‘symptom’? • While the DSM is meant to make these judgements more objective (rather than subjective) and reliable, human behaviour and motivation is extremely diverse • Often, diagnoses are still largely influenced by the clinician © Ryan Langridge Personality and Dissociative Disorders Personality Disorders DSM-5 • Particularly unusual patterns of behaviour that are: • Maladaptive • Distressing to oneself or others • Resistant to change 1. Cluster A 2. Cluster B 3. Cluster C • Relative to the individual’s cultural context • Should have been present for a long time (e.g., Since adolescence or childhood) • Should be distinct from other, separate psychological disorders, medical conditions, or substances © Ryan Langridge Personality and Dissociative Disorders Cluster A Personality Disorders: Odd and Eccentric Behaviours • Individuals tend to perceive and interpret the world in an abnormal (inaccurate) way • Thoughts are expressed in a manner that makes forming close relationships difficult © Ryan Langridge Personality and Dissociative Disorders Cluster A Personality Disorders • Paranoid Personality Disorder (PPD) • Individuals are preoccupied by the belief that other people are attempting to harm or deceive them • Often react with anger to these (imagined) threats, and are typically suspicious and guarded around other people • Demonstrate faster neural response to auditory stimuli, larger levels of stress hormones © Ryan Langridge Vigilance for threats? Personality and Dissociative Disorders Cluster A Personality Disorders • Schizoid Personality Disorder (SPD) • Individuals are ‘socially detached’, do not desire close relationships, and do not find most activities enjoyable • May appear indifferent, cold, emotionless • Usually results in intentional self-isolation © Ryan Langridge Personality and Dissociative Disorders Cluster A Personality Disorders • Schizotypal Personality Disorder • Individuals are uncomfortable with close relationships and demonstrate unusual or eccentric thoughts and behaviours. • Tend to be suspicious and superstitious, determine imaginary connections between thoughts and events, and express thoughts using strange, abstract phrasing © Ryan Langridge • Associated with smaller left Superior Temporal Gyrus (auditory cortex and language processes) Personality and Dissociative Disorders • Cluster B Personality Disorders: Dramatic and Erratic Behaviours • Characterized by ‘emotional intensity’, and emotional outbursts that impair social functioning • Dramatic, erratic behaviour © Ryan Langridge Personality and Dissociative Disorders Cluster B Personality Disorders • Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) • Individuals switch between extreme positive and negative emotions • Demonstrate an unstable sense of self, impulsivity, and have difficulty maintaining social relationships • Relationships may involve strong feelings of attachment, fear of abandonment, and manipulation © Ryan Langridge Personality and Dissociative Disorders Cluster B Personality Disorders • Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) cont. • Medial frontal lobes (regulation of attention and emotional responses) smaller in BPD individuals than healthy controls • May be related to deep feelings of insecurity, and severe emotional experiences early in life. © Ryan Langridge • Dangerous, self-destructive behaviour (e.g., substance abuse, indiscriminate sex, self-injury, suicide) may reflect the individual’s difficulty coping with extreme negative emotions Personality and Dissociative Disorders Cluster B Personality Disorders • Narcissistic Personality Disorder • Characterized by an inflated sense of self-importance and an excessive need for attention and admiration AND intense self-doubt and fear of abandonment • May be related to disruption of a frontal lobe circuit involved with feelings of empathy © Ryan Langridge Personality and Dissociative Disorders Cluster B Personality Disorders • Histrionic Personality Disorder (HPD) ‘Histrionic’ → ‘Histrionicus, Histrio (Latin)’ Meaning: “Actor” • Characterized by excessive attention seeking and dramatic behaviour • Dramatic nature makes individuals with HPD seem (excessively) comfortable in social situations • Often engage in indulgent and risky behaviours, tend to be sensitive to criticism, and generally manipulative in relationships © Ryan Langridge • Distinguishes itself from other disorders by its flamboyant and exhibitionistic behaviours Personality and Dissociative Disorders Cluster B Personality Disorders • Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) • Profound lack of empathy or emotional connection with others • Disregard for other’s rights or feelings, and a tendency to impose their own desires (sometimes violently) onto others regardless of consequences • Do not demonstrate remorse, and rarely motivated to change, accept treatment © Ryan Langridge Personality and Dissociative Disorders Cluster B Personality Disorders • Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) cont. • Difficulty learning tasks that require decision making and following complex rules • Factors that may contribute to APD: • Troubled upbringing, trauma, abuse • Self-defence against extreme negative emotions may affect ability to feel empathy, leading to cruel behaviours toward others © Ryan Langridge • Conduct Disorders → Often a precursor to APD, demonstrate reduced activity in frontal lobes Personality and Dissociative Disorders Cluster B Personality Disorders • Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) and Psychopathy • Approx 15-20% of people with APD could also be diagnosed with psychopathy • Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL_R; Hare, 2003) • 20 Item checklist, 2 main factors: 1. Interpersonal/Emotional 2. Social Deviance (People with APD – but not psychopathy – score high on this factor) © Ryan Langridge Personality and Dissociative Disorders Psychopathy • Reduced amygdala and frontal lobe activation in response to aversive stimuli • Less connections between Frontal lobes and amygdala • Demonstrate frontal lobe activity (planning) during perspective-taking tasks, instead of empathy-related area activity © Ryan Langridge Physical Response Measured: Eyeblink muscles Personality and Dissociative Disorders • Cluster C Personality Disorders: Anxious and Fearful Behaviours © Ryan Langridge • Characterized by feelings of anxiety, nervousness that affect observable behaviour • Inhibited behaviour Personality and Dissociative Disorders Cluster C Personality Disorders • Avoidant Personality Disorder (AvPD) • Individuals avoid social interactions, including those at school or work, because they feel inadequate and fear rejection • Avoid new experiences due to fear of embarrassment, criticism • Increased amygdala activity observed when judging the emotional content of negative stimuli → This increased activity positively correlated with self-reported anxiety © Ryan Langridge Personality and Dissociative Disorders Cluster C Personality Disorders • Dependent Personality Disorder (DPD) Avoidant Personality Disorder: • Individuals have an excessive need to be cared for • Often require frequent assurance from others and help with everyday decision making © Ryan Langridge • Also characterized by a fear of abandonment and lack of confidence Avoid personal relationships Fear of rejection, abandonment Dependent Personality Disorder: Excessive reliance on, and attachment to others Personality and Dissociative Disorders Cluster C Personality Disorders • Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD) • Individuals are unusually focused on perfection, details, organization, productivity • May also avoid spending money or disposing of old, worthless objects • Often have trouble delegating, receiving help from others © Ryan Langridge Personality and Dissociative Disorders © Ryan Langridge Personality and Dissociative Disorders • Dissociative experiences → Sense of separation (dissociation) between person and surroundings • E.g., Daydreaming, focusing intensely on a particular task • Dissociative Disorders • Category of mental disorders characterized by a split between a person’s conscious awareness and their feelings, cognitions, memory, and identity • Can be caused by brain damage, psychological trauma, or extreme stress © Ryan Langridge • Victims of extreme stress or psychological trauma may cope with the experience by shifting consciousness to a different perspective, e.g. experience the event or trauma as an ‘observer’ Personality and Dissociative Disorders • Dissociative Identity Disorder (also referred to as Multiple Personality Disorder) • Affects approx. 1.5% of the population • Individuals experience a split in identity such that they feel different aspects of themselves as though they were separated from each other. • Can be so severe that the person constructs entirely separate personalities, who switch between being in control © Ryan Langridge Personality and Dissociative Disorders • Dissociative Identity Disorder (also referred to as Multiple Personality Disorder) • Some evidence to suggest that some forms of learning and memory do not transfer between identities (However, results are mixed) • DID diagnoses, number of alter identities increasing over time → Could be due to increased awareness of the disorder, or subjective biases of the treating psychologists © Ryan Langridge Anxiety Disorders • Category of disorders involving fear or nervousness that is excessive, irrational, and maladaptive • Affect 1/8 (12.5%) Canadians (Statistics Canada, 2013) • Often co-occur with other disorders such as depression or OCD, substance abuse • Repeated activation of the fight-or-flight response (sympathetic nervous system) © Ryan Langridge • Distinction from normal experience of anxiety: • Intensity, duration of the response • Not necessarily connected to current circumstances Anxiety Disorders • Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) • Frequently elevated levels of anxiety, generally in response to the normal challenges and stresses of everyday life • Symptoms may include difficulty sleeping, breathing, concentrating • Often hard to identify a specific cause or source of anxiety • Right amygdala is larger, more sensitive to stressors in people with GAD © Ryan Langridge Anxiety Disorders • Panic Disorder • Occasional episodes of sudden, very intense fear • Different than GAD → Short intervals of severe anxiety, vs chronic but lesser anxiety (GAD) © Ryan Langridge Anxiety Disorders • Panic Disorder • Panic attacks → Brief (usually < 10 minutes) moments of extreme anxiety that include a rush of physical arousal paired with frightening thoughts Agoraphobia: Intense fear of having a panic attack in public May lead to avoidance of public settings and increased isolation © Ryan Langridge Anxiety Disorders • Phobias → Severe, irrational fear of a very specific object or situation • Specific Phobias → Fear of specific object, activity, or organism • Social Phobias → Fear of interpersonal situations and relationships © Ryan Langridge Anxiety Disorders Social Phobia • Social Anxiety Disorder • Very strong fear of being judged by others or being embarrassed or humiliated in public • Usually managed by developing familiar routines, and controlled exits, limiting social activities © Ryan Langridge Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) • Obsessions → Unwanted, inappropriate, persistent thoughts • Compulsions → Engagement in repetitive, often ritualistic behaviours • Compulsive behaviours reduce anxiety produced by obsessive thoughts © Ryan Langridge Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) • Orbitofrontal Loop • Orbitofrontal cortex → Decision making • Basal ganglia → Movement and reward • Thalamus → Receiving sensory information Vahabzadeh & McDougle (2014) • Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex → Attentional control and problem solving • Anterior cingulate cortex → Attention and emotion © Ryan Langridge Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) ACC • Orbitofrontal Loop dl • Orbitofrontal cortex → Decision making PFC • Basal ganglia → Movement and reward • Thalamus → Receiving sensory information Vahabzadeh & McDougle (2014) • Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex → Attentional control and problem solving • Anterior cingulate cortex → Attention and emotion © Ryan Langridge Mood Disorders Major Depression • Prolonged periods of: • • • • Sadness Feelings of worthlessness, hopelessness Social withdrawal Cognitive and physical sluggishness • Development of a pessimistic explanatory style: • Often make critical personal, stable and global attributions • E.g., “This is my fault” (Personal); “Things are never going to change” (Stable); “If I failed at this, I’ll fail at everything else too” (Global) © Ryan Langridge Mood Disorders Genetic Vulnerability to Depression • Twin studies suggest genetic risk for developing major depression • This risk increases with the degree of stress the person experiences • Diathesis–Stress Model → An interaction between a genetic predisposition for a disorder and the amount of stress will influence the risk of developing that disorder © Ryan Langridge Mood Disorders Biological Aspects of Depression Non-Depressed Brain: Amygdala © Ryan Langridge Stimulates HPA Axis Hippocampus and Frontal Lobes Releases Stress Hormones (E.g. Cortisol) Mood Disorders Biological Aspects of Depression Non-Depressed Brain: Amygdala Stimulates HPA Axis Depressed Brain: Amygdala © Ryan Langridge Releases Stress Hormones (E.g. Cortisol) Hippocampus and Frontal Lobes HPA Axis Over Stimulates Hippocampus and Frontal Lobes Increased Release Stress Hormones (E.g. Cortisol) Mood Disorders Biological Aspects of Depression Most antidepressants primarily target Serotonin. I.e. Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) • Long-term Effects • Depressed brain becomes sensitized to stressful events, triggering more depressive episodes • Damage to hippocampus → Reduces neurogenesis (neuronal cell growth), reduction in new learning and flexible thinking • Other dysfunctional brain areas: © Ryan Langridge • Nucleus accumbens (Part of the basal ganglia; positive rewards) → Anhedonia (reduced ability to feel pleasure) • Medial prefrontal cortex → Overactivation may cause ruminating on negative events Mood Disorders Bipolar Disorder • Characterized by extreme highs and lows in mood, motivation, and energy • Swings in emotion between depression and mania • Mania → Extreme energy, positivity, characterized by speaking quickly, impulsive/spontaneous decision making, high risk behaviours • The frequency of these manic episodes can vary • Rates of suicide are higher than Major Depression • May be due to the increase in energy that accompanies a manic episode © Ryan Langridge Schizophrenia • Brain disease that causes significant ‘breaks’ from reality, a lack of integration of thoughts and emotions, and problems with attention and memory • Affects < 1% of adults worldwide • Symptoms may develop gradually over time, or rapidly • High genetic component → 25-50% concordance in identical twins © Ryan Langridge • I.e. If one twin has schizophrenia, the other twin will have a 25-50% chance of developing schizophrenia as well Schizophrenia: 3 Stages of Schizophrenia Stage 3 • Tend to occur in sequence, and the cycle may often repeat Stage 2 1. Prodromal Phase • Confusion and difficulty organizing thoughts • Loss of interest and withdrawal from friends and family, seek isolation • General loss of motivation 2. Active Phase (Symptoms are most pronounced) • Delusional thoughts, hallucinations • Disorganized patterns of thoughts, emotions, and behaviour 3. Residual Phase © Ryan Langridge Stage 1 • Most symptoms disappear or lessen • Withdraw from social contact, trouble concentrating, and a general lack of motivation Schizophrenia: Symptoms Positive Symptoms • Presence of maladaptive behaviours • Confused, paranoid thinking • Inappropriate emotional reactions • Hallucinations → Alterations in perception, such that a person senses something that does not actually exist outside of the person’s mind • Delusions → Beliefs that are not based on or well integrated with reality, E.g. ‘Delusions of grandeur’ • Disorganized Behaviour → Considerable difficulty completing everyday tasks, E.g., Cooking, self-hygiene, socializing © Ryan Langridge Schizophrenia: Symptoms Negative Symptoms • Absence of adaptive behaviours • Absent or ‘flat’ emotional reactions, e.g. A consistently neutral ‘mask-like’ facial expression • Lack of interaction with others, lack of motivation, working memory deficits • Catatonia → Movement disorder in which the individual is unresponsive and does not move for a long period of time • Dopamine likely plays a role in these ‘catatonic states’, based on its involvement in the initiation of movement © Ryan Langridge Schizophrenia: The Brain • Larger ventricles in the brain due to loss of brain matter • Particularly pronounced loss of matter in the amygdala and hippocampus • Lowered activity in frontal lobes • May explain attentional difficulties and organizing information within a logical narrative • Increased dopamine levels (over-activity) → perhaps related to ‘positive’ symptoms of schizophrenia (e.g., hallucinations, delusions) • Decreased glutamate levels (under-activity) → perhaps related to ‘negative’ symptoms © Ryan Langridge