I/O Psychology: Employee Satisfaction & Commitment PDF

I/O Psychology Employee Satisfaction &Commitment Pelagia Dominique V. De Guia, RPm De Guia, 2022  What we'll discuss Why Should We Care about Employee Attitudes What Causes Employees to be Satisfied with...

I/O Psychology Employee Satisfaction &Commitment Pelagia Dominique V. De Guia, RPm De Guia, 2022  What we'll discuss Why Should We Care about Employee Attitudes What Causes Employees to be Satisfied with and Committed to Their Jobs? Measuring Job Satisfaction and Commitment Consequences of Dissatisfaction and Other Negative Work Attitudes De Guia, 2022  Many job-related attitudes have been studied by psychologists, but the two most commonly studied are job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Job Satisfaction The attitude employees have toward their jobs. Organizational Commitment The extent to which an employee identifies with and is involved with an organization. De Guia, 2022  Why Should We Care About Employee Attitudes? De Guia, 2022  Satisfied employees tend to be committed to an organization (Cooper-Hakim & Viswesvaran, 2005), and employees who are satisfied and committed are more likely to attend work (Hackett, 1989), stay with an organization (Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner, 2000), arrive at work on time (Koslowsky, Sagie, Krausz, & Singer, 1997), perform well (Judge, Thoresen, Bono, & Patton, 2001), engage in behaviors helpful to the organization (LePine, Erez, & Johnson, 2002), not behave in counterproductive ways (Dalal, 2005), and engage in ethical behavior (Kish-Gephart, Harrison, & Treviño, 2010) than are employees who are not satisfied or committed. AFFECTIVE-COGNITIVE CONSISTENCY: employees who have strong, consistent beliefs about their level of job satisfaction We often find that job satisfaction and organizational commitment are related more to a desire to quit, miss work, or reduce effort than they are to actual behaviors. De Guia, 2022  What Causes Employees to be Satisfied with and Committed to Their Jobs? De Guia, 2022  Satisfied This employees chapter will tend explore to severalbe committed theories that to seek an to organization explain why (Cooper-Hakim workers are satisfied& Viswesvaran, with and 2005), committed and to employees their jobs, who but are none satisfied of the and committed theories completely are more explains likely to these attend work job-related (Hackett, attitudes. 1989), Each stay is with an valuable, organization however, (Griffeth, because it Hom, suggests & Gaertner, ways to 2000), increase arrive at employee work on time satisfaction (Koslowsky, and commitment.Sagie, Krausz, Thus, even& Singer, though 1997), a perform theory itself well may (Judge, not be Thoresen, completely Bono, & Patton, supported by 2001), engage research, thein behaviors resulting helpful to suggestions the organization have generally (LePine, led to Erez, & Johnson, increased 2002), performance not or behave longer in counterproductive tenure. ways (Dalal, 2005), and engage in ethical behavior (Kish-Gephart, Harrison, & Treviño, 2010) than are employees who are not satisfied or committed. Before discussing various theories, it is important to note that both of these workrelated attitudes AFFECTIVE-COGNITIVE are multifaceted.That CONSISTENCY: is, employees employees who may have be satisfied strong, with consistentone facet of work (e.g., their pay) but not beliefs about their level of job satisfaction another (e.g., their coworkers). We often find that job satisfaction and organizational commitment are related more to a desire to quit, miss work, or reduce effort than they are to actual behaviors. De Guia, 2022  Satisfied It is thought employees that there tendaretothree be committed motivationaltofacets an organization to organizational (Cooper-Hakim commitment& Viswesvaran, (Meyer & Allen, 2005), 1997). and employees who are satisfied and committed are more likely to attend work (Hackett, 1989), stay with an organization (Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner, 2000), arrive1. at AFFECTIVE work on time COMMITMENT: (Koslowsky, Sagie, The extent Krausz, to &which Singer, an employee 1997), perform wantswell to (Judge, remain Thoresen,withBono, an organization & Patton, 2001), and cares engage about in behaviors the organization helpful toandtheis organization willing to exert (LePine, effort Erez, &on Johnson, its behalf. 2002), not behave in counterproductive ways (Dalal, 2005), and engage in ethical 2. CONTINUANCE behavior (Kish-Gephart, COMMITMENT: Harrison,The & Treviño, extent to 2010) which thanemployees are employees believe whothey are not satisfied must remain or committed. with an organization due to the time, expense, and effort they have already put into the organization and has the thought of the difficulty she would AFFECTIVE-COGNITIVE have in finding another CONSISTENCY: job. employees who have strong, consistent beliefs 3. NORMATIVE about their level COMMITMENT: of job satisfaction The extent to which employees feel an obligation to remain with an organization. We often find that job satisfaction and organizational commitment are related more to a desire to quit, miss work, or reduce effort than they are to actual behaviors. De Guia, 2022  WHAT INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AFFECT JOB SATISFACTION? Satisfied employees tend to be committed to an organization (Cooper-Hakim & One of the 2005), Viswesvaran, factorsandthatemployees influence wholevelsareofsatisfied job satisfaction and commitment and committed is our are more likely to personal attend predisposition work (Hackett, 1989),to bestay satisfied. with an organization (Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner, 2000), arrive at work on time (Koslowsky, Sagie, Krausz, & Singer, 1997), perform well (Judge, INDIVIDUAL Thoresen, Bono,DIFFERENCES & Patton, 2001), THEORY postulateshelpful engage in behaviors that tosome variability (LePine, the organization in job satisfaction Erez, & Johnson,is due to annotindividual’s 2002), behave inpersonal tendency across counterproductive situations ways (Dalal, 2005),toand enjoyengage what inshe does.behavior ethical Thus, (Kish-Gephart, certain types of people&will Harrison, generally Treviño, 2010) be thansatisfied and motivated are employees who are regardless not satisfiedoforthe type of job they hold. committed. For individual-difference theory to be true, it would be essential that job satisfaction be consistent AFFECTIVE-COGNITIVE across time and CONSISTENCY: situations. employees who have strong, consistent beliefs about their level of job satisfaction Because there seems to be at least some consistency in job satisfaction across time Weandoften jobs, find the next question that job concerns satisfaction andthe types of people organizational that seemareto related commitment be consistently more to asatisfied desire towith quit,their missjobs. work, or reduce effort than they are to actual behaviors. De Guia, 2022  GENETIC PREDISPOSITIONS Satisfied employees tend to be committed to an organization (Cooper-Hakim & job satisfaction Viswesvaran, notand 2005), only may be who employees fairlyarestable across satisfied andjobs but alsoaremay committed morein likely part beto genetically attend work determined. (Hackett, 1989), stay with an organization (Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner, 2000), arrive at work on time (Koslowsky, Sagie, Krausz, & Singer, 1997), perform well (Judge, Such a finding Thoresen, Bono,does not of2001), & Patton, courseengage mean inthat there ishelpful behaviors a “job to satisfaction gene”. Instead, the organization (LePine, inherited Erez, personality & Johnson, 2002),traits such asinnegative not behave affectivity (the counterproductive waystendency to have (Dalal, 2005), andnegative engage inemotions such as (Kish-Gephart, ethical behavior fear, hostility, and anger)& are Harrison, related Treviño, to our 2010) thantendency to be satisfied are employees who are withsatisfied not jobs (Ilies or &committed. Judge, 2003). Furthermore, one way to increase AFFECTIVE-COGNITIVE the overallemployees CONSISTENCY: level of job who satisfaction in an organization have strong, consistent wouldabout beliefs be totheir hirelevel onlyofthose applicants who show high levels of overall job and life job satisfaction satisfaction. We often find that job satisfaction and organizational commitment are related more to a desire to quit, miss work, or reduce effort than they are to actual behaviors. De Guia, 2022  CORE SELF-EVALUATIONS Satisfied employees tend to be committed to an organization (Cooper-Hakim & Whether the2005), Viswesvaran, consistency in job satisfaction and employees is due toand who are satisfied genetic or environmental committed factors, are more likely to a serieswork attend of personality variables (Hackett, 1989), stayappear with antoorganization be related to job satisfaction. (Griffeth, That is, certain Hom, & Gaertner, 2000), typesatofwork arrive personalities on time are associated (Koslowsky, withKrausz, Sagie, the tendency & Singer,to 1997), be satisfied performorwell dissatisfied (Judge, with one’sBono, Thoresen, job. & Patton, 2001), engage in behaviors helpful to the organization (LePine, Erez, & Johnson, 2002), not behave in counterproductive ways (Dalal, 2005), and engage inJudge, ethicalLocke, and(Kish-Gephart, behavior Durham (1997)Harrison, have hypothesized & Treviño,that 2010)four thanpersonality variables are employees who are related not to people’s satisfied predisposition to be satisfied with their life and jobs: or committed. 1. Emotional Stability, CONSISTENCY: employees who have strong, consistent AFFECTIVE-COGNITIVE beliefs2. Self-Esteem, about their level of job satisfaction 3. Self-Efficacy (perceived ability to master their environment), and 4. Internal We often Locus find that jobofsatisfaction Control (perceived ability to control and organizational their environment). commitment are related more to a desire to quit, miss work, or reduce effort than they are to actual behaviors. De Guia, 2022  CULTURE Satisfied employees tend to be committed to an organization (Cooper-Hakim & Viswesvaran, 2005), and employees who are satisfied and committed are more likely to Workers attend in different work (Hackett,countries 1989), stayhave withdifferent levels of job an organization satisfaction. (Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner, 2000), arrive at work on time (Koslowsky, Sagie, Krausz, & Singer, 1997), perform well (Judge, Thoresen, Bono, & Patton, 2001), engage in behaviors helpful to the organization (LePine, INTELLIGENCE Erez, & Johnson, 2002), not behave in counterproductive ways (Dalal, 2005), and engage in ethical behavior (Kish-Gephart, Harrison, & Treviño, 2010) than are employees who are not A satisfied study byorGanzach committed.(1998) suggests that bright people have slightly lower job satisfaction than do less intelligent employees in jobs that are not complex. In complex AFFECTIVE-COGNITIVE jobs, the relationship betweenCONSISTENCY: intelligence and employees satisfactionwho have strong, consistent is negligible. beliefs about their level of job satisfaction We often find that job satisfaction and organizational commitment are related more to a desire to quit, miss work, or reduce effort than they are to actual behaviors. De Guia, 2022  ARE EMPLOYEES SATISFIED WITH OTHER APESCTS OF THEIR LIVES? Satisfied employees tend to be committed to an organization (Cooper-Hakim & Judge et al. (1998), Viswesvaran, 2005), Judge and Watanabe and employees (1993), who are and Tait satisfied andetcommitted al. (1989) have theorized are more likelynot to only that attend workjob(Hackett, satisfaction 1989),isstay consistent across time (Griffeth, with an organization but thatHom, the extent to which & Gaertner, 2000),a person arrive at iswork satisfied on timewith all aspects (Koslowsky, of life Sagie, (e.g.,& marriage, Krausz, friends, Singer, 1997), job, well perform family, and (Judge, geographicBono, Thoresen, location) is consistent & Patton, as well. 2001), engage in behaviors helpful to the organization (LePine, Erez, & Johnson, 2002), not behave in counterproductive ways (Dalal, 2005), and engage inFurthermore, people ethical behavior who are satisfied (Kish-Gephart, with &their Harrison, jobs tend Treviño, 2010)tothan be satisfied with life.who are are employees not satisfied or committed. Job satisfaction is significantly correlated with life satisfaction. Thus people happy in life tend to be happy in their AFFECTIVE-COGNITIVE jobs and vice versa. CONSISTENCY: employees who have strong, consistent beliefs about their level of job satisfaction Employee’s needs can be met in a variety of nonwork activities such as hobbies and Wevolunteer work. often find that job satisfaction and organizational commitment are related more to a desire to quit, miss work, or reduce effort than they are to actual behaviors. De Guia, 2022  ARE EMPLOYEES' JOB EXPECTATIONS BEING MET? Satisfied employees tend to be committed to an organization (Cooper-Hakim & Employees come Viswesvaran, 2005),toanda job with certain employees who areneeds, values, satisfied andand expectations. committed If there are more likelyistoa discrepancy attend between 1989), work (Hackett, these stay needs, withvalues, and expectations an organization (Griffeth,and Hom,the&reality of the Gaertner, job, 2000), employees arrive willon at work become dissatisfied and time (Koslowsky, lessKrausz, Sagie, motivated. & Singer, 1997), perform well (Judge, Thoresen, Bono, & Patton, 2001), engage in behaviors helpful to the organization (LePine, When& Johnson, Erez, an employee’s 2002),expectations not behave inarecounterproductive not met, the results waysare lower2005), (Dalal, job satisfaction, and engage indecreased organizational ethical behavior commitment, (Kish-Gephart, Harrison, &and an 2010) Treviño, increased intent than are to leave employees who theare organization. not satisfied orThese results support the importance of ensuring that applicants have committed. realistic job expectations. AFFECTIVE-COGNITIVE CONSISTENCY: employees who have strong, consistent The effect beliefs aboutoftheir employees perceiving level of job that an organization has not fulfilled its promises satisfaction and obligations (called psychological contracts) to an employee. When such Wepsychological often find thatcontract breaches job satisfaction and occur, job satisfaction organizational commitmentand organizational are related more to acommitment desire to quit,gomiss down andoremployee work, intentions reduce effort to leave than they are totheactual organization increase. behaviors. De Guia, 2022  IS THE EMPLOYEE A GOOD FIT WITH THE JOB AND THE ORGANIZATION? Satisfied employees tend to be committed to an organization (Cooper-Hakim & When employees Viswesvaran, 2005), consider how well and employees whothey “fit” withand are satisfied a committed job or an organization, are more likelythey to consider: attend work (Hackett, 1989), stay with an organization (Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner, 2000), arrive1. at Thework extent on to time which their values, (Koslowsky, interests, Sagie, Krausz, personality, lifestyle, & Singer, 1997), and skills perform match well (Judge, Thoresen,those Bono,of their & Patton,vocation 2001),(e.g., engagea in career such helpful behaviors as nursing, to the law enforcement, organization or (LePine, Erez, &psychology), Johnson, 2002), not behave in counterproductive ways (Dalal, 2005), and engage 2. Jobbehavior in ethical (its particular tasks), Harrison, & Treviño, 2010) than are employees who are (Kish-Gephart, 3. Organization, not satisfied or committed. 4. Coworkers, and 5. Supervisor (Kristof-Brown, AFFECTIVE-COGNITIVE Zimmerman,employees CONSISTENCY: & Johnson,who2005).have strong, consistent In addition beliefs to these about their level offive aspects of fit, Cable and DeRue (2002) believe that job satisfaction needs/supplies fit is also important. Needs/supplies fit is the extent to which the rewards, We salary, often find thatandjobbenefits received satisfaction andbyorganizational employees are perceived toare commitment berelated consistent morewith to atheir desireefforts andmiss to quit, performance. work, or reduce effort than they are to actual behaviors. De Guia, 2022  IS THE EMPLOYEE A GOOD FIT WITH THE JOB AND THE ORGANIZATION? Satisfied employees tend to be committed to an organization (Cooper-Hakim & Another “fit”2005), Viswesvaran, factorandthat has been employees whoshown to be and are satisfied related to job are committed satisfaction more likelyand to commitment attend is the extent work (Hackett, 1989), stayto which employees’ with an desire organization for a particular (Griffeth, work schedule Hom, & Gaertner, 2000), (e.g., shift, arrive at worknumber of hours) on time matchesSagie, (Koslowsky, their Krausz, actual schedule. & Singer, 1997), perform well (Judge, Thoresen, Bono, & Patton, 2001), engage in behaviors helpful to the organization (LePine, Branham Erez, (2012) 2002), & Johnson, believesnotthat thereinare behave certain signs toways counterproductive which(Dalal, an organization should 2005), and engage inpay attention ethical behaviorthat(Kish-Gephart, indicate a job/person Harrison, mismatch. Somethan & Treviño, 2010) of these signs are that are employees who the are employee: not satisfied or committed. 1. does not seem excited when first hired or assigned to a job; 2. starts asking for someCONSISTENCY: AFFECTIVE-COGNITIVE tasks to be givenemployees to other employees; who have strong, consistent 3. applies beliefs for other about their jobsjobinsatisfaction level of the organization; 4. begins to ask for new projects; and 5. appears We often boredjoborsatisfaction find that unchallenged. and organizational commitment are related more to a desire to quit, miss work, or reduce effort than they are to actual behaviors. De Guia, 2022  ARE THE TASKS ENJOYABLE? Satisfied employees tend to be committed to an organization (Cooper-Hakim & 51% of employees Viswesvaran, 2005), indicated and employeesthat the whonature of the and are satisfied workcommitted itself was are a very important more likely to factor work attend in their level of 1989), (Hackett, job satisfaction. stay with anEmployers should organization take innovative (Griffeth, steps to2000), Hom, & Gaertner, make work at arrive more interesting. work on time (Koslowsky, Sagie, Krausz, & Singer, 1997), perform well (Judge, Thoresen, Bono, & Patton, 2001), engage in behaviors helpful to the organization (LePine, Erez, DO &EMPLOYEES Johnson, 2002),ENJOYnot behave in counterproductive WORKING ways (Dalal, 2005), WITH SUPERVISORS ANDand engage in ethical behavior (Kish-Gephart, Harrison, & Treviño, 2010) than are employees who are COWORKERS? not satisfied or committed. People who enjoy working with their supervisors and coworkers will be more satisfied AFFECTIVE-COGNITIVE with their jobs (Mossholder, CONSISTENCY: employees2005; Settoon, & Henagan, who Repetti have strong, consistent & Cosmas, 1991). beliefs about their Satisfaction with level of job satisfaction supervisors and coworkers was related to organizational and team commitment, which in turn resulted in higher productivity, lower intent to leave the We often find that organization, and ajobgreater satisfaction and organizational willingness to help. commitment are related more to a desire to quit, miss work, or reduce effort than they are to actual behaviors. De Guia, 2022  ARE COWORKERS OUTWARDLY UNHAPPY? Satisfied employees tend to be committed to an organization (Cooper-Hakim & SOCIAL INFORMATION Viswesvaran, PROCESSING 2005), and employees who THEORY are satisfied and committed are more likely to attendalsoworkcalled as SOCIAL (Hackett, LEARNING 1989), stay with an THEORY organization (Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner, 2000), States arrive at workthat employees on time modelSagie, (Koslowsky, their Krausz, levels of& Singer, satisfaction 1997),and motivation perform from well (Judge, otherBono, Thoresen, employees. & Patton, 2001), engage in behaviors helpful to the organization (LePine, Erez, & Johnson, 2002), not behave in counterproductive ways (Dalal, 2005), and engage inThus, if anbehavior ethical organization’s older employees (Kish-Gephart, Harrison, work hard and & Treviño, 2010)talk positively than about their are employees whojobs are andsatisfied not their employer, new employees will model this behavior and be both productive or committed. and satisfied. The reverse is also true: If veteran employees work slowly and complain about their jobs, so will newCONSISTENCY: AFFECTIVE-COGNITIVE employees. employees who have strong, consistent beliefs about their level of job satisfaction In general, the research on social information processing theory supports the idea that Wetheoften socialfindenvironment does haveandanorganizational that job satisfaction effect on employees’ commitment attitudes and behaviors are related more to a(Pollock, desire toWhitbred, quit, miss&work, Contractor, 2000; or reduce effortRobinson & O’Leary-Kelly, than they 1998). are to actual behaviors. De Guia, 2022  ARE REWARDS AND RESOURCES GIVEN EQUITABLY? Satisfied employees tend to be committed to an organization (Cooper-Hakim & One factor related Viswesvaran, to both 2005), and job satisfaction employees and employee who are satisfied motivationareis more and committed the extent likely to which employees attend perceive work (Hackett, 1989),that staythey withare an being treated (Griffeth, organization fairly. Hom, & Gaertner, 2000), arrive at work on time (Koslowsky, Sagie, Krausz, & Singer, 1997), perform well (Judge, EQUITY THEORY: Thoresen, A theory Bono, & Patton, of job 2001), satisfaction engage statinghelpful in behaviors that employees will be satisfied to the organization (LePine,if their&ratio Erez, of effort Johnson, to reward 2002), is similar not behave to that of other employees. in counterproductive ways (Dalal, 2005), and engage If we in ethical believe(Kish-Gephart, behavior we are treated unfairly, Harrison, we attempt & Treviño, to are 2010) than change our beliefs employees who are or behaviors not satisfied until the situation appears to be fair. or committed. Although few of us would CONSISTENCY: AFFECTIVE-COGNITIVE disagree with thisemployees approach, who it is difficult to implement have strong, for consistent severalabout beliefs reasons: their level of job satisfaction 1. Practicality 2. the find We often employee’s perception and that job satisfaction of inputs and outputs organizational determines commitment equity, more are related not the to a desireactual inputs to quit, missand outputs. work, or reduce effort than they are to actual behaviors. De Guia, 2022  ARE REWARDS AND RESOURCES GIVEN EQUITABLY? Satisfied employees tend to be committed to an organization (Cooper-Hakim & Another way2005), Viswesvaran, to increase perceptions and employees whoofare equity wouldand satisfied be to allow employees committed are moreaccess likely to the salaries attend of other1989), work (Hackett, employees. stay withSuch policies, however, an organization (Griffeth,encourage employees Hom, & Gaertner, to 2000), speculate arrive at workabout how much on time other Sagie, (Koslowsky, peopleKrausz, make.&This speculation Singer, usuallywell 1997), perform results in (Judge, employeesBono, Thoresen, thinking the worst & Patton, 2001),and believing engage that others in behaviors maketomore helpful than they do.(LePine, the organization Erez, & Johnson, 2002), not behave in counterproductive ways (Dalal, 2005), and engage inEven if an ethical organization behavior were able (Kish-Gephart, to maintain Harrison, complete & Treviño, internal 2010) than equity, employees are employees who are would not then compare satisfied their ratios with those of employees from other organizations. or committed. Although equity theory is CONSISTENCY: AFFECTIVE-COGNITIVE historically interesting, a more employees whouseful haveapproach strong, to fairness consistent issuesabout beliefs has been theirthe study level of satisfaction of job three aspects of organizational justice: distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice. We often find that job satisfaction and organizational commitment are related more to a desire to quit, miss work, or reduce effort than they are to actual behaviors. De Guia, 2022  ARE REWARDS AND RESOURCES GIVEN EQUITABLY? Satisfied employees tend to be committed to an organization (Cooper-Hakim & ORGANIZATIONAL Viswesvaran, 2005), andJUSTICE: employeesA theory thatsatisfied who are postulatesandthat if employees committed perceive are more likelythey to are being attend worktreated (Hackett,fairly, 1989),they staywill withbeanmore likely to(Griffeth, organization be satisfied Hom,with their jobs2000), & Gaertner, and motivated arrive to do at work on well. time (Koslowsky, Sagie, Krausz, & Singer, 1997), perform well (Judge, DISTRIBUTIVE Thoresen, Bono, & Patton, JUSTICE: The perceived 2001), engage fairness in behaviors of tothethedecisions helpful made(LePine, organization in an Erez, &organization. Johnson, 2002), not behave in counterproductive ways (Dalal, 2005), and engage PROCEDURAL in ethical JUSTICE: The behavior (Kish-Gephart, perceived Harrison, fairness & Treviño, 2010)ofthan the are methods usedwho employees by are an organization not satisfied to make decisions. or committed. INTERACTIONAL JUSTICE: The perceived fairness of the interpersonal treatment that employees AFFECTIVE-COGNITIVE receive in anemployees CONSISTENCY: organization. who have strong, consistent beliefs about their level of job satisfaction Perceived justice is related to several important factors, including job satisfaction, organizational We often find thatcommitment, job satisfactionperformance, trust,commitment and organizational withdrawalare(e.g., relatedturnover, more to aabsenteeism), desire to quit,and missnegative work, oremployee reactions reduce effort (e.g.,are than they theft, sabotage). to actual behaviors. De Guia, 2022  IS THERE A CHANCE FOR GROWTH AND CHALLENGE? Satisfied employees tend to be committed to an organization (Cooper-Hakim & For many employees, Viswesvaran, 2005), andjob satisfaction employees who isareaffected satisfiedbyand opportunities committed for are challenge more likelyand to growth.work (Hackett, 1989), stay with an organization (Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner, 2000), attend arrive at work on time (Koslowsky, Sagie, Krausz, & Singer, 1997), perform well (Judge, JOB ROTATION: Thoresen, A system Bono, & Patton, in which 2001), engageemployees in behaviorsarehelpful given the opportunity to the to perform organization (LePine, several Erez, different 2002), & Johnson, jobs in not an organization. behave in counterproductive ways (Dalal, 2005), and engage thebehavior in ethical employee(Kish-Gephart, is given the same number Harrison, of tasks2010) & Treviño, to dothan at one time, but the are employees whotasks are changeorfrom not satisfied time to time. committed. JOB ENLARGEMENT: A system in which employees are given more tasks to perform at the same time. AFFECTIVE-COGNITIVE CONSISTENCY: employees who have strong, consistent JOB ENRICHMENT: beliefs about their levelAofsystem in which employees are given more responsibility over job satisfaction the tasks and decisions related to their job. We often find that job satisfaction and organizational commitment are related more to a desire to quit, miss work, or reduce effort than they are to actual behaviors. De Guia, 2022  IS THERE A CHANCE FOR GROWTH AND CHALLENGE? Satisfied employees tend to be committed to an organization (Cooper-Hakim & A job can be 2005), Viswesvaran, enlarged andinemployees two ways: knowledge used and who are satisfied andtasks performed. committed are more likely to attendWith work knowledge enlargement, (Hackett, 1989), employees stay with an are (Griffeth, organization allowed to Hom,make more complex & Gaertner, 2000), decisions. arrive at work on time (Koslowsky, Sagie, Krausz, & Singer, 1997), perform well (Judge, WithBono, Thoresen, task &enlargement, Patton, 2001),they are given engage more tasks in behaviors helpfuloftothethesame difficulty (LePine, organization level to Erez, &perform. Johnson, 2002), not behave in counterproductive ways (Dalal, 2005), and engage inJob rotation ethical and job behavior enlargementHarrison, (Kish-Gephart, accomplish two main & Treviño, objectives: 2010) than are employees who are First, they not satisfied challenge employees by requiring them to learn to operate several or committed. different machines or perform several different tasks. Second, job rotationCONSISTENCY: AFFECTIVE-COGNITIVE helps to alleviate boredomwho employees by allowing an employee have strong, consistentto beliefs change tasks. about their level of job satisfaction The main difference between job rotation and job enrichment is that with job rotation Wean often employee performs find that different tasks, job satisfaction and with job enrichment and organizational commitment theare employee related assumes more to amore desireresponsibility to quit, miss over work,theortasks. reduce effort than they are to actual behaviors. De Guia, 2022  IS THERE A CHANCE FOR GROWTH AND CHALLENGE? Satisfied employees tend to be committed to an organization (Cooper-Hakim & JOB CHARACTERISTIC Viswesvaran, THEORY: who are satisfied and committed are more likely to 2005), and employees attendThe worktheory proposed (Hackett, by with 1989), stay Hackman and Oldham an organization thatHom, (Griffeth, suggests that certain & Gaertner, 2000), characteristics arrive at work on timeof (Koslowsky, a job will make the Krausz, Sagie, job more& orSinger, less satisfying, depending 1997), perform on the well (Judge, particular Thoresen, Bono, needs of the & Patton, worker. 2001), engage in behaviors helpful to the organization (LePine, JOB &DIAGNOSTIC Erez, SURVEY Johnson, 2002), (JDS): in counterproductive ways (Dalal, 2005), and engage not behave A measure in ethical of the extent Harrison, behavior (Kish-Gephart, to which& aTreviño, job provides opportunities 2010) than for who are employees growth, are autonomy, not satisfied and meaning. or committed. The final method for increasing AFFECTIVE-COGNITIVE employees’ self-actualization CONSISTENCY: employees who needshave that we will strong, discuss consistent here isabout beliefs the use of self-directed their teams, or quality circles. level of job satisfaction QUALITY CIRCLES (SELF-DIRECTED TEAMS): Employee groups that meet to We oftenpropose changes find that that will improve job satisfaction productivity and and organizational the qualityare commitment of work life.more to related a desire to quit, miss work, or reduce effort than they are to actual behaviors. De Guia, 2022  INTEGRATION OF THEORIES Satisfied employees tend to be committed to an organization (Cooper-Hakim & Surrette and2005), Viswesvaran, Harlowand (1992) found that employees whopeople will be most are satisfied satisfied witharea more and committed job if they likelyhad to the option attend work to choose1989), (Hackett, that stay job from with other alternatives(Griffeth, an organization rather Hom, than the job being2000), & Gaertner, their only choice. arrive at work on time (Koslowsky, Sagie, Krausz, & Singer, 1997), perform well (Judge, Thoresen, Bono, & Patton, 2001), engage in behaviors helpful to the organization (LePine, The &DISCREPANCY Erez, Johnson, 2002),THEORY states not behave that an employee ways in counterproductive will remain (Dalal, satisfied 2005), and with their engage injobethical if it meets their(Kish-Gephart, behavior various needs,Harrison, wants, expectations, and than & Treviño, 2010) their are values. employees who are Furthermore, not according to the INTRINSIC SATISFACTION THEORY and JOB satisfied or committed. CHARACTERISTICS THEORY, an employee will be more satisfied with their jobs if the tasks themselves are enjoyable AFFECTIVE-COGNITIVE to perform. employees who have strong, consistent CONSISTENCY: beliefs about their level of job satisfaction Our level of satisfaction with particular aspects of the job can have an impact on our Weoverall oftensatisfaction. find that job satisfaction and organizational commitment are related more to a desire to quit, miss work, or reduce effort than they are to actual behaviors. De Guia, 2022  INTEGRATION OF THEORIES Satisfied employees tend to be committed to an organization (Cooper-Hakim & Viswesvaran, 2005), and employees who are satisfied and committed are more likely to attend work (Hackett, 1989), stay with an organization (Griffeth, Hom, The equity and justice theories predict that no matter how much an employee & Gaertner, 2000), arrive at work on time (Koslowsky, Sagie, Krausz, & Singer, 1997), perform well intrinsically like their works, if rewards, punishments, and social interactions are not (Judge, Thoresen, Bono, & Patton, 2001), engage in behaviors helpful to the given equitably they will still feel the dissatifaction towards their jobs.organization (LePine, Erez, & Johnson, 2002), not behave in counterproductive ways (Dalal, 2005), and engage inOnethical behavior (Kish-Gephart, Harrison, & Treviño, 2010) than are employees who the basis of job characteristics theory and Maslow’s level of self-actualization, lack are not satisfied or committed. of opportunity for growth, challenge, variety, autonomy, and advancement will decrease satisfaction for many people. AFFECTIVE-COGNITIVE CONSISTENCY: employees who have strong, consistent beliefs about their level of job satisfaction We often find that job satisfaction and organizational commitment are related more to a desire to quit, miss work, or reduce effort than they are to actual behaviors. De Guia, 2022  MEASURING JOB SATISFACTION AND COMMITMENT Satisfied employees tend to be committed to an organization (Cooper-Hakim & Viswesvaran, Generally, job2005), and employees satisfaction whoinare is measured onesatisfied and committed are more likely to of two ways: attend1. Standard work (Hackett, 1989), stay with an job satisfaction inventories organization (Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner, 2000), arrive2. at work on time (Koslowsky, Custom-designed satisfactionSagie, Krausz, & Singer, 1997), perform well (Judge, inventories Thoresen, Bono, & Patton, 2001), engage in behaviors helpful to the organization Commonly used standard job satisfaction inventories (Measure of Job Satisfaction) (LePine, Erez, & Johnson, A. FACE SCALE 2002), not behave in counterproductive ways (Dalal, 2005), and engage in ethical behavior raters place (Kish-Gephart, a mark under aHarrison, & Treviño, facial expression 2010) that than similar is most are employees whothey to the way are not satisfied or committed. feel about their jobs. Kunin (1955) AFFECTIVE-COGNITIVE CONSISTENCY: employees who have strong, consistent beliefs about their level of job satisfaction We often find that job satisfaction and organizational commitment are related more to a desire to quit, miss work, or reduce effort than they are to actual behaviors. De Guia, 2022  MEASURING JOB SATISFACTION AND COMMITMENT Satisfied employees tend to be committed to an organization (Cooper-Hakim & Viswesvaran, 2005), andINDEX B. JOB DESCRIPTIVE employees (JDI) who are satisfied and committed are more likely to attendAwork (Hackett, 1989), stay with an organization (Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner, measure of job satisfaction that yields scores on five dimensions which includes 2000), arrive at work on time supervision, (Koslowsky, opportunities, pay, promotional Sagie, Krausz, coworkers, & Singer, 1997), perform and the well (Judge, work itself. Thoresen, Bono, & Patton, 2001), engage in behaviors helpful to the organization This was developed by Smith, Kendall, and Hulin in 1969 and most recently revised (LePine, Erez, &inJohnson, 2002), not 2009, consists behave of 72 in counterproductive job-related adjectives and ways (Dalal, 2005), statements andrated that are engage by in ethical behavior (Kish-Gephart, Harrison, & Treviño, 2010) than are employees who are employees. not satisfied or committed. C. MINNESOTA SATISFACTION QUESTIONNAIRE (MSQ) was developed by Weiss, Dawis, England, and Lofquist (1967). AFFECTIVE-COGNITIVE contains 100 items that CONSISTENCY: yield scores onemployees 20 scales. who have strong, consistent beliefs about their level D. JOB IN GENERAL (JIG) of job satisfaction useful when an organization wants to measure the overall level of job satisfaction We often find that job satisfaction rather than specific aspects. and organizational commitment are related more to a desire to quit, miss work, or reduce effort than they are to actual behaviors. De Guia, 2022  MEASURING JOB SATISFACTION AND COMMITMENT Satisfied employees tend to be committed to an organization (Cooper-Hakim & Viswesvaran, 2005), MEASURES OF COMMITMENTand employees who are satisfied and committed are more likely to attendMost workmeasures (Hackett,of1989), stay with an organization (Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner, organizational commitment are relatively short and tap aspects 2000), arrive at work on time (Koslowsky, Sagie, Krausz, & Singer, 1997), perform similar to the three types of commitment mentioned previously: affective commitment, well (Judge, Thoresen, Bono, & Patton, 2001), engage in behaviors helpful to the organization continuance commitment, and normative commitment. Perhaps the most used is the (LePine, Erez, & Johnson, 2002), Allen and Meyer survey. not behave in counterproductive ways (Dalal, 2005), and engage in ethical behavior (Kish-Gephart, Harrison, & Treviño, 2010) than are employees who are not satisfied or committed. A. THE ALLEN AND MEYER SURVEY developed by Allen and Meyer (1990). AFFECTIVE-COGNITIVE CONSISTENCY: employees who have strong, has 24 items, 8 each for the 3 factors of affective, continuance, and normativeconsistent beliefs commitment. about their level of job satisfaction We often find that job satisfaction and organizational commitment are related more to a desire to quit, miss work, or reduce effort than they are to actual behaviors. De Guia, 2022  MEASURING JOB SATISFACTION AND COMMITMENT Other measures include the following: ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT QUESTIONNAIRE (OCQ) A 15-item questionnaire developed by Mowday, Steers, and Porter (1979). measure three commitment factors: acceptance of the organization’s values and goals, willingness to work to help the organization, and a desire to remain with the organization. ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT SCALE (OCS) A nine-item survey developed by Balfour and Wechsler (1996). measures three aspects of commitment identification, exchange, and affiliation. Sample questions include, “I felt like a part of the family at this organization” and “What this organization stands for is important to me.” De Guia, 2022  MEASURING JOB SATISFACTION AND COMMITMENT Custom-Designed Inventories The advantage to custom-designed inventories is that an organization can ask employees questions specific to their organization. Some organizations hires a consultant who designedquestions that specifically tapped employees’ thoughts and feelings about the changes. De Guia, 2022  Consequences of Dissatisfaction and Other Negative Work Attitudes  ABSENTEEISM Dissatisfied and uncommited employees were more likely to leave their works and miss their jobs rather than the satisfied and commited ones. Due to the significant costs of absenteeism and turnover, organizations are working hard and expending great effort to reduce the number of unscheduled absences. For it to be effective, it is important to know the reasons why an employees chooses to absent on their works. De Guia, 2022  LINKING ATTENDANCE TO CONSEQUENCES The basis behind rewarding attendance and punishing absenteeism is that employees make a decision each day as to whether they will or will not attend work. Although the decision-making process is not clearly understood, it probably includes weighing the consequences of going to work (or to class) against the coNsequences of not going. If in fact employees make conscious decisions about attending work, attendance can be increased in several ways: REWARDING ATTENDANCE DISCIPLINING ABSENTEEISM KEEPING ACCURATE ATTENDANCE RECORDS De Guia, 2022  REWARDS FOR ATTENDING A. FINANCIAL INCENTIVES 1. WELL PLAY-A method of absenteeism control in which employees are paid for their unused sick leave. 2. FINANCIAL BONUS- A method of absenteeism control in which employees who meet an attendance standard are given a cash reward. 3. GAMES- An absenteeism control method in which games such as poker and bingo are used to reward employee attendance. 4. PAID TIME OFF PROGRAM (PTO)- An attendance policy in which all paid vacations, sick days, holidays, and so forth Are combined. B. RECOGNITION PROGRAMS Another way to can make work attendance more rewarding is through recognition and praise. Formal recognition programs provide employees with perfect-attendance certificates, coffee mugs, plaques, lapel pins, watches, and so forth. De Guia, 2022  DISCIPLINE FOR NOT ATTENDING Absenteeism can be reduced by punishing or disciplining employees who miss work. Discipline can range from giving a warning or a less popular work assignment to firIng an employee. CLEAR POLICIES AND BETTER RECORD KEEPING Another way to increase the negative consequences of missing work is through policy and record keeping. Most organizations measure absenteeism by counting the number of days missed, or frequency. Perhaps a better method would be to record the number of instances of absenteeism rather than the number of days. Setting attendance objectives and giving feedback on how well employees are achieving their goals can decrease employee absenteeism. Also, another strategy to lower absenteeism may be to give employees feedback about their levels of absence. De Guia, 2022  INCREASING ATTENDANCE BY REDUCING EMPLOYEE STRESS Absenteeism can be reduced by removing the negative factors employees associate with going to work and one of this was stress. The greater the job stress, the lower the job satisfaction and commitment, and the greater the probability that most people will want to skip work. To increase attendance, then, negative factors must be eliminated. be aware of the negative factors that bother employees. Once the problems are known, it is important that management diligently work to eliminate the identified problems from the workplace. De Guia, 2022  INCREASING ATTENDANCE BY REDUCING EMPLOYEE STRESS EMPLOYEE ASSISTANCE PROGRAM (EAP) EAPs use professional counselors to deal with employee problems. An employee with a problem can either choose to see a counselor on her own or be recommended by her supervisor. INCREASING ATTENDANCE BY REDUCING ILLNESS To reduce absenteeism related to illness, organizations are implementing a variety of wellness programs. To reduce both absenteeism and health care costs, many employers are rewarding employees whose body mass index, cholesterol levels, and blood pressure levels are within acceptable ranges (Cornwell, 2007). De Guia, 2022  REDUCING ABSENTEEISM BY NOT HIRING "ABSENCE-PRONE" EMPLOYEES An interesting theory of absenteeism postulates that one reason people miss work is the result of a particular set of personality traits they possess. Salgado (2002) found very low correlations between personality and absenteeism Ones, Viswesvaran, and Schmidt (2003) found that scores on personality-based integrity tests—which seem to measure a combination of conscientiousness, agreeableness, and emotional stability (Ones, 1993)—significantly predicted employee absenteeism. De Guia, 2022  UNCONTROLLABLE ABSENTEEISM CAUSED BY UNIQUE EVENTS One study estimated that 40% of absenteeism is unavoidable (Dalton & Mesch, 1991). Organizations may also want to offer some type of shuttle service for their employees to avoid not only weather problems but also any resulting mechanical failures of employees’ automobiles. De Guia, 2022  TURNOVER COST OF TURNOVER Though turnover rates fluctuate from year to year, about 1.4% of an organization’s employees leave each month (16.8% per year). Both visible and hidden costs determine this estimate: Visible costs of turnover include advertising charges, employment agency fees, referral bonuses, recruitment travel costs, salaries and benefits associated with the employee time spent processing applications and interviewing candidates, and relocation expenses for the new employee. Hidden costs include the loss of productivity associated with the employee leaving—other employees trying to do extra work, no productivity occurring from the vacant position—and the lower productivity associated with a new employee being trained. De Guia, 2022  TURNOVER In terms of turnover in an organization, there are four views on the effect of performance on such factors as safety, productivity, and profitability: There is a negative correlation such that higher turnover rates will result in lower organizational performance. Because some turnover is healthy for an organization, there is a U-shaped relationship between turnover and performance such that very low or very high levels of turnover will result in lower organizational performance, but a moderate amount of turnover will result in higher performance. The negative effect of turnover is strongest when an organization’s turnover rate is low, and this effect then diminishes as turnover rates climb. The effect of turnover on organizational performance is mediated by the strength of an organization’s HR efforts. Turnover will most affect organizations that don’t invest in their employees and will least affect organizations that spend time and money to develop their employees. De Guia, 2022  REDUCING TURNOVER The first step in reducing turnover is to find out why your employees are leaving. This is usually done by administering attitude surveys to current employees and conducting exit interviews with employees who are leaving. Salary surveys can also be useful because they allow you to compare your organization’s pay and benefit practices with those of other organizations. It is important to understand that employee turnover is a process of disengagement from the organization that can take days, weeks, or months (Branham, 2012). Employees typically leave their jobs for one of five reasons: unavoidable reasons, advancement, unmet needs, escape, and unmet expectations. De Guia, 2022  REDUCING TURNOVER UNAVOIDABLE REASONS Unavoidable turnover includes such reasons as school starting (e.g., quitting a summer job) or ending (e.g., a student quits her job as a part-time receptionist because she has graduated and will be moving), the job transfer of a spouse, employee illness or death, or family issues (e.g., employees staying home to raise their children or take care of their parents). Though employers are taking steps to reduce turnover due to family issues, there is little an organization can do to prevent turnover due to the other reasons. De Guia, 2022  REDUCING TURNOVER ADVANCEMENT Employees often leave organizations to pursue promotions or better pay. A solution used by an increasing number of police departments who have limited promotion opportunities is to allow officers with extensive experience and skills to advance to status positions such as master officer or senior officer. At times, employers can reduce turnover by offering more pay; however, this will work only if a low compensation or an inadequate benefits package is the prime reason for employees leaving the organization. De Guia, 2022  REDUCING TURNOVER UNMET NEEDS Employees whose needs are unmet will become dissatisfied and perhaps leave the organization. For example, if an employee has high social needs and the job involves little contact with people, or if an employee has a need for appreciation and recognition that is not being met by the organization, the employee might leave to find a job in which her social needs can be met. PERSON/ORGANIZATION FIT: The extent to which an employee’s personality, values, attitudes, philosophy, and skills match those of the organization. De Guia, 2022  REDUCING TURNOVER ESCAPE A common reason employees leave an organization is to escape from people,working conditions, and stress. if working conditions are unsafe, dirty, boring, too strenuous, or too stressful, there is an increased likelihood that the employee will seek employment in an organization with better working conditions. De Guia, 2022  REDUCING TURNOVER UNMET EXPECTATIONS Employees come to an organization with certain expectations about a variety of issues, such as pay, working conditions, opportunity for advancement, and organizational culture. When reality does not match these expectations, employees become less satisfied and, as a result, are more likely to leave the organization (Griffeth et al., 2000). De Guia, 2022  REDUCING TURNOVER UNMET EXPECTATIONS To summarize, organizations can reduce turnover in these ways: Conduct realistic job previews during the recruitment stage. Select employees who have been referred by a current employee, who have friends and/or family working for the organization, and who did not leave their previous job after only a short tenure (Barrick & Zimmerman, 2005). Look for a good person/organization fit during the selection interview. Meet employee needs (e.g., safety, social, growth). Mediate conflicts between employees and their peers, supervisors, and customers. Provide a good work environment. Provide a competitive pay and benefits package. Provide opportunities to advance and grow. De Guia, 2022  REDUCING TURNOVER UNMET EXPECTATIONS There are many times when employees remain with an organization even though characteristics of their jobs suggest that they would leave. EMBEDDEDNESS: The extent to which employees have links to their jobs and community, the importance of these links, and the ease with which they can be broken and replaced at another job. Ramesh and Gelfand (2010) have expanded the concept of embeddedness to include the extent to which an employee fits with the culture of the organization and community, the employee’s links to people in the organization and the community, and the sacrifices an employee would make if he left the organization or the community. De Guia, 2022  COUNTERPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIORS Dissatisfied employees, especially those who are unable to change jobs, also engage in a variety of other counterproductive behaviors in organizations. These counterproductive behaviors can be separated into two types of behaviors: those aimed at individuals and those aimed at the organization (Berry, Ones, & Sackett, 2007). Behaviors aimed at individuals include gossip, playing negative politics, harassment, incivility, workplace violence, and bullying. Behaviors aimed at the organization include theft and sabotage. De Guia, 2022  LACK OF ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIORS ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIORS (OCBs): Behaviors that are not part of an employee’s job but that make the organization a better place to work (e.g., helping others, staying late). Employees who engage in Organizational Citizenship Behaviors (OCBs) are motivated to help the organization and their coworkers by doing the “little things” that they are not required to do. As one would expect, a meta-analysis has demonstrated that job satisfaction is related to OCBs. That is, employees who are satisfied with their jobs and committed to the organization are more likely to “go the extra mile” than are employees who are dissatisfied with their jobs (LePine et al., 2002). De Guia, 2022  I/O Psychology Thank you for listening Pelagia Dominique V. De Guia, RPm De Guia, 2022