Chapter-1-FM-Overview-and-Philosophical-View.pdf

Bachelor of Science in Psychology Psych 109 Field Methods Course Description: Field methods in psychology this course covers both quantitative and qualitative field methods. It includes the design and administration of s...

Bachelor of Science in Psychology Psych 109 Field Methods Course Description: Field methods in psychology this course covers both quantitative and qualitative field methods. It includes the design and administration of surveys, interviews and focus group discussion. Learners will also be oriented on the use of secondary data and observations. Chapter 1: Field Methods Overview What is Field Research? Field research is defined as a qualitative method of data collection that aims to observe, interact and understand people while they are in a natural environment. For example, nature conservationists observe behavior of animals in their natural surroundings and the way they react to certain scenarios. In the same way, social scientists conducting field research may conduct interviews or observe people from a distance to understand how they behave in a social environment and how they react to situations around them. Field research encompasses a diverse range of social research methods including direct observation, limited participation, analysis of documents and other information, informal interviews, surveys etc. Although field research is generally characterized as qualitative research, it often involves multiple aspects of quantitative research in it. Lesson 1: Introduction/ Data Collection Methods RESEARCH DESIGNS Research design refers to the method used in the research including sampling techniques, sources and procedures for data gathering, measurement of variables and data analysis. “Research design is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collection and analyzing the needed information.”( William Zikmund ) “Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to control variance.” (Kerlinger) QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Qualitative research reflects a historical, intuitive, or observational approach. Sociologist Weber described it as “verstehen” in which the researcher immerses himself in the subject matter and develops “sensitizing concepts” which enhance his understanding and explanation of reality. Qualitative research emphasizes verbal descriptions and explanations of behavior or reality. Rather than concerning itself primarily with representative samples, it emphasizes careful and detailed description of social practices in an attempt to understand how the participants experience and explain their own world. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Quantitative research is based on the natural sciences approach of positivism. Quantitative research seeks to quantify or reflect with numbers observations about a phenomenon. It emphasizes precise measurement, the testing of hypotheses based on a sample of observation, and a statistical analysis of data. Quantitative research includes surveys, causal-comparative studies, correlational studies, meta- analysis and experimental research. Three Main Types of Psychological Research DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH Descriptive research is a type of research that is used to describe the characteristics of a population. It collects data that are used to answer a wide range of what, when, and how questions pertaining to a particular population or group. Descriptive research does not answer questions about why a certain phenomenon occurs or what the causes are. Answers to such questions are best obtained from randomized and quasi-experimental studies. However, data from descriptive studies can be used to examine the relationships (correlations) among variables. While the findings from correlational analyses are not evidence of causality, they can help to distinguish variables that may be important in explaining a phenomenon from those that are not. Thus, descriptive research is often used to generate hypotheses that should be tested using more rigorous designs. A variety of data collection methods may be used alone or in combination to answer the types of questions guiding descriptive research. Some of the more common methods include surveys, interviews, observations, case studies, and portfolios. The data collected through these methods can be either quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative data are typically analyzed and presented using descriptive statistics. Using quantitative data, researchers may describe the characteristics of a sample or population in terms of percentages (e.g., percentage of population that belong to different racial/ethnic groups, percentage of low-income families that receive different government services) or averages (e.g., average household income, average scores of reading, mathematics and language assessments). Quantitative data, such as narrative data collected as part of a case study, may be used to organize, classify, and used to identify patterns of behaviors, attitudes, and other characteristics of groups. Strengths: 1. Study participants are questioned or observed in a natural setting (e.g., their homes, child care or educational settings). 2. Study data can be used to identify the prevalence of particular problems and the need for new or additional services to address these problems. 3. Descriptive research may identify areas in need of additional research and relationships between variables that require future study. Descriptive research is often referred to as "hypothesis generating research." 4. Depending on the data collection method used, descriptive studies can generate rich datasets on large and diverse samples. Limitations: 1. Descriptive studies cannot be used to establish cause and effect relationships. 2. Respondents may not be truthful when answering survey questions or may give socially desirable responses. 3. The choice and wording of questions on a questionnaire may influence the descriptive findings. 4. Depending on the type and size of sample, the findings may not be generalizable or produce an accurate description of the population of interest. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH A correlational research study uses the non-experimental method where the measurement of two variables occurs. It is up to the individuals conducting the study to assess and understand the statistical relationship between them without having extraneous influences occur. Strengths: 1. Neither variable goes through a manipulative process. When you choose a correlational research study to review variables, then neither one goes through a manipulative process. 2. Two different data collection methods are available with correlational research. The data gathered from a correlational research study can come from either naturalistic observation or archival data. 3. The results from correlational research are more applicable. Because a correlational research study occurs in real-life situations, the data that gets gathered from this work is typically more applicable to everyday encounters. 4. It offers a beneficial starting position for research. When a correlational research study begins to look at specific relationships or phenomena to see if connections are present, then the variables provide an excellent starting position to begin the review. 5. Researchers can determine the direction and strength of each relationship. The variables that get studied with correlational research help us to find the direction and strength of each relationship. 6. A survey method is helpful in correlational research. Some correlational research study methods can benefit from the use of surveys to collect information on a specific topic. 7. The results of a correlational research study are easy to classify. A correlational research study uses what is called the “correlation coefficient” to measure the strength of the relationship between the variables. It can range from 1.00 to -1.00. Limitations: 1. Correlational research only uncovers relationships. The benefit of a correlational research study is that it can uncover relationships that may have not been previously known. Correlation does not equate to causation when using this study method. 2. It won’t determine what variables have the most influence. A correlational research study can help to determine the connections that variables share with a specific phenomenon. 3. Correlational research can be a time-consuming process. Although the benefits of a correlational research study can be tremendous, it can also be expensive and time-consuming to achieve an outcome. 4. Extraneous variables might interfere with the information. There is no guarantee that additional influences will stay out of the correlational research study. 5. Outcomes can be adversely impacted by the quality of the work. The quality of the work performed during a correlational research study will determine the usefulness of the data gathered. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH -This is a research method that requires the investigator to manipulate at least one independent variable, controls other relevant variables, and observes the effect on one or more dependent variables. The variable manipulated by the experimenter is called the independent variable. The independent variable is also called the experimental variable or the treatment variable. The variable affected by the manipulation of the independent variable is called the dependent variable. This is also referred to as the criterion variable, effect, or outcome of the study. It is the variable whose value changes because of the manipulation of another variable. a. Confounding Variables– those aspects of a study or sample that might influence the dependent variable and whose effects may be confused with the effects of the independent variable. Confounding variables are of two types: intervening and extraneous variables. b. Intervening variables– these refer to internal characteristics of the sample that are influenced by the independent variable, and, in turn, influences the dependent variable.  c. Extraneous variables– these refer to variables that may potentially influence the result of the study but are not the variable of interest (e.g., researcher, environmental, or measurement variable) Strengths: The experimental method makes it possible to determine whether changes in the independent variable cause subsequent changes in the dependent variable. While other types of research make it possible to determine whether or not there is a correlation between a pair of variables, only the experiment can tell whether there is a causal relationship. Experiments, by their very nature, require a particular sequence of events to take place in a particular temporal order. They focus on change over time, while survey methods are much better at identifying static correlational patterns. Limitations: The main weakness of the experimental method is their dependence on what many see as an "artificial" environment. People may behave differently in the experimental setting than they would under more ordinary conditions. While the artificial environment of the experiment allows the unpredictable complexities of ordinary life to be "controlled," it tends to remove the participants from the ordinary context in which they live and place them instead in an artificial environment that has little or no resemblance to the "real world." References: Child care and early education research connections. Descriptive Research Studies | Research Connections Creswell, J.W. & Creswell, J.D. (2018) Research design : qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, California : SAGE Publications, Inc., Gaille, L. (2020, January 17). 12 advantages and disadvantages of Correlational Research Studies. Kothari, C.R. (2004) Research Methodology: methods and techniques. New Delhi: New Age International Lesson 2: Philosophical World View PHILOSOPHICAL WORLDVIEWS (Creswell) - Hidden in research but still influence the practice of research - Basic set of beliefs that guide action - Paradigms, epistemologies, ontologies A proposal may include the following: Philosophical worldview Definition of basic ideas of that worldview How the worldview shaped their approach to research Postpositivist Worldview - Traditional form - Often quantitative - Sometimes called ‘scientific method’, empirical science, positivist - Challenging the traditional notion of the absolute truth of knowledge - Deterministic philosophy - Comte, Durkheim, Newton, and Locke Key Assumptions (Phillips and Burbules, 2000) 1. Knowledge is conjectural (and antifoundational) 2. Research is the process of making claims and then refining or abandoning some of them for other claims more strongly warranted. 3. Data, evidence, and rational considerations shape knowledge. 4. Research seeks to develop relevant, true statements, ones that can serve to explain the situation of concern or that describe the causal relationships of interest. 5. Being objective is an essential aspect of competent inquiry; researchers must examine methods and conclusions for bias. The Constructivist Worldview - Often Qualitative research - Goal of research: rely on the participants’ views - Questions become broad and general so that the participants can construct the meaning of a situation - Often address process of interaction - Rather than starting with a theory, inquirers generate or inductively develop a theory or pattern of meaning Key Assumptions (Crotty, 1998) 1. Human beings construct meanings as they engage with the world they are interpreting. 2. Humans engage with their world and make sense of it based on their historical and social perspectives. 3. The basic generation of meaning is always social, arising in and out of interaction with a human community. – The Transformative Worldview -arose due to the postpositivist assumptions that did not fit marginalized individuals -i.e. Marx and Freire -intertwined with politics and political change agenda to confront social oppression -social issues: empowerment, oppression, alienation, etc. -researcher may proceed collaboratively so as not to further marginalize the participants as a result of the inquiry Key Assumptions (Mertens 2010) 1. Places central importance on the study of lives and experiences of diverse groups that have traditionally been marginalized. 2. In studying these diverse groups, the research focuses on inequities based on gender, race, ethnicity, disability, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic class that result in asymmetric power relationships. 3. Links political and social action to these inequities. 4. Uses a program theory of beliefs about how a program works and why the problem exists. The Pragmatic Worldview - Actions, situations, and consequences - Mixed methods Key Assumptions (Cherryholmes, 1992; Morgan, 2007; Creswell, 2008) 1. Not committed to any one system of philosophy and reality 2. Freedom of choice 3. The world is not an absolute unity 4. The pragmatist researchers look to the what and how to research based on the intended consequences-where they want to go with it. 5. Pragmatists agree that research always occurs in social, historical, political, and other contexts. 6. Pragmatists have believed in an external world independent of the mind as well as that lodged in the mind. 7. Thus, for the mixed methods researcher, pragmatism opens the door to multiple methods, different worldviews, and different assumptions, as well as different forms of data collection and analysis.