Field Methods in Psychology_1-2.pdf

Field Methods in Psychology - Latter half of 20th century: interest in qualitative research increased and along with Chapter 1: Theory and Epistemology it, the development of mixed methods research...

Field Methods in Psychology - Latter half of 20th century: interest in qualitative research increased and along with Chapter 1: Theory and Epistemology it, the development of mixed methods research ◦ Qualitative research – an approach for Epistemology – derived from the Greek exploring and understanding the meaning of words: episteme, meaning “knowledge” and individuals or groups ascribe to a social or logos, meaning “explanation” and translated in human problem suffix form (-logia) as “the study of” - the process of research involves emerging - the study of knowledge questions and procedures, data typically - it focuses on what knowledge is as well as collected in the participants setting, data what types of knowledge there are analysis inductively building from particulars - the theory of knowledge and deals with how to general themes, and the researcher knowledge is gathered and from which sources making interpretations of the meaning of the ◦ in research terms, your view of the world data and of knowledge strongly influences your ◦ Quantitative research – is an approach for interpretation of data and therefore your testing objective theories by examining the philosophical standpoint should be made relationship among variables clear from the beginning - these variables, in turn, can be measured, - research approaches are plans and the typically on instruments, so that numbered procedures for research that span the steps data can be analyzed using statistical from broad assumptions to detailed methods of procedures data collection, analysis and interpretation ◦ Mixed methods research – an approach in - research approaches, research designs and inquiry involving collecting both quantitative research methods are three key terms that and qualitative data, integrating the two forms represent a perspective about research that of data and using distinct designs that may presents information in a successive way from involve philosophical assumptions and broad constructions of research to the narrow theoretical frameworks procedures of methods ▪ Core assumption: it provides a more complete understanding of a research The three approaches to research problem than either approach alone Three components involved in an approach - A complete way to view the gradation of differences between the three approaches is in the basic philosophical assumptions researchers bring to the study, the type of research strategies used in the research (e.g., quantitative experiments or qualitative case studies), and the specific methods employed in conducting these strategies Philosophical worldviews - Late 19th century to mid-20th century: - Worldview means “a basic set of beliefs that quantitative approaches dominate the forms of guide action” research in social sciences; - Other terms: paradigms, epistemologies and ontologies, or broadly conceived research methodologies - These are hidden in research, but still world. Therefore, the researcher begins with a influence the practice of research theory, collects data that either supports or - In making a proposal or plan, it is essential to refutes the theory, and then make necessary make explicit the larger philosophical ideas that revisions and conducts additional tests the researchers espouse. Worldviews may be included in the following sections: The constructivist worldview – social ◦ Philosophical worldview proposed in the constructivists believe that individuals seek study understanding of the world in which they live ◦ A definition of basic ideas of the worldview and work. Individuals develop subjective ◦ How the worldview shaped their approach to meanings of their experiences – meanings research directed toward certain objects or things - It is a general philosophical orientation about - the goal of the research is to rely as much as the world and the nature of research that possible on the participants’ views of the brings to a study situation being studied - the subjective meanings are negotiated Four Worldviews socially and historically. They are not simply Postpositivism Constructivism imprinted on individuals, but are formed Determination Understanding through interactions with others (hence social Reductionism Multiple participant constructivism and through historical and Empirical meanings cultural norms that operate in individuals’ lives observation and Social and - thus constructivists often address the measurement historical processes of interaction among individuals. Theory verification construction They also focus on specific contexts in which Theory generation people live and work to understand the Advocacy/Participatory Pragmatism historical and cultural settings of participants Political Consequences of - researchers recognize that their own Empowerment actions backgrounds shape their interpretation, and Issue-oriented Problem-centered they position themselves in the research to Collaborative Pluralistic acknowledge how their interpretation flows Change-oriented Real-world practice from personal, cultural and historical oriented experiences - rather than starting with a theory, inquirers The postpositivist worldview – is generate or inductively develop a theory or sometimes called scientific method. Other pattern of meaning terms also include positivist/postpositivist research, empirical science, and postpositivism The transformative worldview – this - hold a deterministic philosophy in which position arose during the 1980s and 1990s causes determine effects or outcomes. It is from individuals who felt that post positivist reductionist in that the intent is to reduce the assumptions imposed structural laws and ideas into a small, discreet set to test, such as benefit and theories that did not fit the variables that comprise hypotheses and marginalized individuals in our society research questions - there is no uniform body of literature - knowledge is based on careful observation characterizing this worldview, but it includes and measurement of the objective reality that groups of researchers that are critical theorists: exists “out there” in the world. Thus, developing Marxists, feminists, racial and ethnic minorities, numeric measures of observations and persons with disabilities, LGBTQ+ studying the behavior of individuals becomes - a transformative worldview holds that paramount for a postpositivist research inquiry needs to be intertwined with - there are laws and theories that govern the politics and a political change agenda to world, and these need to be tested or verified confront social oppression at whatever levels it and refined so that we can understand the occurs - special issues need to be addressed that ◦ Experimental research – seeks to speak to important social issues of the day, determine is a specific treatment influences e.g., empowerment, inequality, oppression, etc. an outcome. Experiments include true - transformative research provides a voice for experiment, with the random assignment of these participants, raising their consciousness subjects to treatment conditions, and quasi- or advancing an agenda for life to improve their experiments that use nonrandomized lives assignments. Quasi-experiment includes a single-subject designs The pragmatic worldview – derives from the work of Pierce, James, Mead and Dewey. As a Qualitative designs – its historic origin came worldview, it arises out of actions, situations from qualitative research from anthropology, and consequences rather than antecedent sociology, the humanities and evaluation conditions. Instead on focusing on method, ◦ Narrative research – a design of inquiry researchers emphasized the research problem from the humanities in which the researcher and use all approaches available to understand studies the lives of individuals and asks one the problem or more individuals to provide stories about - as a philosophical underpinning for mixed their lives methods studies, it is important to focus on the ◦ Phenomenological – this description research problem in social science research culminates in the essence of the experiences and then using pluralistic approaches to derive for several individuals who have all knowledge about the problem experienced phenomenon. This design has - for the mixed methods researcher, strong philosophical underpinnings and pragmatism opens the door to multiple typically involves conducting interviews methods, different worldviews and different ◦ Grounded theory – is a design of inquiry assumptions, as well as different forms of data from sociology in which the researcher collection and analysis derives a general, abstract theory of process, action or interaction grounded in views of Research Designs – the researcher not only participants. The process involves using selects a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed multiple stages of data collection and the methods to conduct; the inquirer also decides refinement and interrelationship of categories on a type of study within the 3 choices of information Alternative Strategies of Inquiry ◦ Ethnography – is a design of inquiry from Quantitative Qualitative Mixed Methods anthropology and sociology in which the Experimental Narrative Sequential researcher studies the shared patterns of designs research Concurrent Non- Phenomenology Transformative behavior, language, and actions of an intact experimental Ethnographies cultural group in a natural setting over a designs such as Grounded prolonged period of time. Data collection surveys theory studies Case study often involves observations and interviews ◦ Case studies – are found in many fields in Quantitative designs – strategies of inquiry which the researcher develops an in-depth associated with quantitative research were analysis of a case. Cases are bounded by those that invoked the postpositivist worldview time and activity, and researchers collect a and that originated mainly in psychology detailed information using a variety of data ◦ Survey research – provides quantitative or collection procedures over a sustained period numeric description of trends, attitudes, or of time opinions of a population by studying a sample population. It includes cross-sectional and Mixed methods design – it involves longitudinal studies using questionnaires or combining or integration of qualitative and structured interviews for data collection – with quantitative research and data in research the intent of generalizing from a sample to study population - the field of mixed methods research is strategies are used in tandem over time to relatively new with major work in developing it best understand a long-term program goal stemming from the middle to late 1980s - early thoughts about the value of multiple Research methods – the third major element methods resided in the idea that all methods in the framework is the specific research had bias and weaknesses and the collection of methods that involve the forms of data both quantitative and qualitative data collection, analysis, and interpretation that neutralized the weaknesses of each form of researchers propose for their studies data - researchers collect data on an instrument or ◦ Convergent parallel mixed methods – the test or gather information on a behavioral researcher converges or merges quantitative checklist. On the other hand, collecting data and qualitative data in order to provide a might also involve visiting a research site and comprehensive analysis of the research observing the behavior of individuals without problem. In this design, the investigator predetermined questions or conducting typically collects both forms of data at roughly interview the same time and then integrates the - the type of data analyzed may be numeric information in the interpretation of the overall information gathered on scale of instruments or results. Contradictions are explained or text information recording and reporting the probed in this design voice of the participants. Researchers make ◦ Explanatory sequential mixed methods – interpretations of the statistical results, or they the researcher first conducts quantitative interpret the themes or patterns that emerge research, analyses the results and then builds from the data on the results to explain them in more detail Quantitative, Mixed, and Qualitative with qualitative research. It is considered Methods explanatory because the initial quantitative Quantitative Mixed Qualitative data results are explained further with the Methods Methods Methods qualitative data Pre- Both pre- Emerging ◦ Exploratory sequential mixed methods – determined determined methods is the reverse sequence from explanatory Instrument and emerging Open-ended sequential design. The researcher begins with based methods questions a qualitative research phase and explores the questions Both open Interview views of participants. The data are then Performance and closed- data, data, attitude ended observation analyzed, and the phase may be used to data, questions data, build and instrument that best fits the sample observational Multiple document under study, to identify appropriate data, and forms of data data, and instruments to use in follow up quantitative census data drawing on all audio-visual study Statistical possibilities data - more advanced mixed methods strategies: analysis Statistical Text and ◦ Transformative mixed methods – uses a Statistical and text image analysis theoretical lens drawn from social justice or interpretation analysis Themes, power as an overarching perspective within a Across patterns design that contains both quantitative and databases interpretation qualitative data interpretation ◦ Embedded mixed methods – involves as either the convergent or sequential use of Criteria for selecting a research approach data, but the core idea is that either ◦ The research problem and questions – quantitative or qualitative data is embedded the problem comes from a void in the within a larger design and the data sources literature, and conflict in research results in play a supporting role in the overall design the literature, topics that have been neglected ◦ Multiphase mixed methods – is common in the literature; a need to lift up the voice of in the fields of evaluation and program marginalized participants and “real-life” intervention, in which concurrent or sequential  problems found in the workplace, the home, ◦ Pose the topic as a brief question. Ask the community, and so forth whether the topic: ◦ Personal experiences – researchers’ own - contributes to the advancement of personal training and experiences also knowledge influence the choice of approach. An - replicates past studies individual trained in technical and scientific - lifts up voices of underrepresented people writing would most likely choose quantitative - helps address social justice design, while those who enjoy writing in a - transform ideas/beliefs of researchers literary way or conduct personal interviews may gravitate to the qualitative approach Literature Review – shares with the readers ◦ Audience – researchers write for audiences the results of other studies related to the one that will accept their research, such as journal being studied editors and readers, faculty committees, - it provides framework for establishing the conference attendees, or colleagues in the importance of the study field. Students should consider the - benchmark for comparing the results with approaches typically supported and used by other findings their advisers - generally shaped from the larger problem to the narrower issue that leads directly into the Chapter 2: Review of Literature methods of a study Review of literature – helps to determine The Use of Literature (Journal article) – in whether the topic is worth studying journal article, it is an abbreviated form that are - it provides insight into ways in which the found in dissertation or master’s thesis researcher can limit the scope to a needed - it typically contained in the section called area of inquiry ‘related literature’ and follows the introduction to a study Preliminary considerations in doing the - this is the pattern for quantitative research proposal: articles ◦ Selecting a topic: - Does the topic can and should be 4 Types of Literature Review (Cooper, researched? 2010) – literature reviews that: ◦ Review of the literature: a. Integrate what others have done and said; - Address the general purpose for using b. Criticize previous scholarly works; literature c. Build bridges between related topics; and - Turn to principles helpful in designing d. Identify the central issues in a field literature The Use of Literature (Qualitative The Research Topic – it becomes the central research) – in qualitative research, literature idea to learn about or to explore should be consistent with the assumptions of ◦ Topic: the subject or subject matter of a learning from the participant; proposed study ◦ not prescribing the questions that need to be answered from the researcher’s standpoint Ways to gain insight into a topic: - qualitative study is exploratory; ◦ Draft a brief working title early in the ◦ not much has been written about the topic development of the project - it may become a major road sign in Using Literature in a Qualitative Study research – a tangible idea that the Use of the Criteria Examples of researcher can keep refocusing on and Literature Suitable Strategy Types changing as the project goes on Frame the Literature must Used in all - good, sound research projects begin with problem in the be available qualitative straightforward, uncomplicated thoughts that introduction to studies easy to read and understand the story  Presented in Acceptable to Use to those Steps in Conducting a Literature Review separate audience who that employs 1. Begin by identifying key words, which may section: Review are familiar with strong theory of Literature traditional and literature emerge in identifying topic or as a result of postpositivist background at preliminary readings. approach the beginning of 2. With these key words, begin searching the the study catalog for holdings. Presented at Suitable for Used in all 3. Initially, try to locate about 50 reports of the end: basis inductive types of articles related to your topic. for comparing process; qualitative and contrasting literature does designs, but 4. Skim the initial group of articles that will findings of not guide and most popular in make useful contribution. qualitative study direct the study grounded theory 5. Begin designing a literature map, a visual but becomes an picture of groupings of literature to illustrate aid once how your study will contribute to the literature. patterns have been identified 6. Begin to draft summaries of the most relevant articles. Include the precise The Use of Literature (Quantitative references. research) – in quantitative research, it should 7. Assemble the literature review; structure it include substantial amount of literature at the thematically or organize it by important beginning of the study; concepts. - it is used to introduce a problem or to - end with a summary of the major themes describe in detail the existing literature; and suggest how your study further adds to - it can introduce a theory; literature and addresses the gap in the - literature is used deductively as a framework themes for the research questions or hypotheses - the researcher can also advance a critique of the past literature and point out The Use of Literature (Mixed methods) – in deficiencies in it and issues in its methods mixed methods, uses either qualitative or quantitative approach; Searching Computerized Databases – - literature use will depend on the strategy and computer databases of the literature are the relative weight given to the qualitative or available in academic libraries and through the quantitative research in the study Internet, journals, conference papers, and materials on many topics; Suggestions for using literature: - academic libraries at major universities have - In quantitative, use the literature to introduce purchased commercial databases as well as a study, describe related literature in a obtained databases in the public domain separate section, and compare findings; - In mixed methods, use literature that is Major databases consistent with the major type of strategy: ◦ ERIC (Educational Resources ◦ consider the type of literature to conduct, Information Center) – a free online digital such as integrative, critical, building bridges library of education research and information among topics or identification of central sponsored by the Institute of Education issues Sciences (IES) of the US Department of - In a qualitative study, use the literature Education; sparingly in the beginning to convey an - can be found at www.eric.ed.gov inductive design: - provides a search of 1.2 million items ◦ consider the most appropriate place for the indexed since 1966 literature and base the decision on the ◦ Google Scholar – provides a way to audience; broadly search for literature across many ◦ use literature in a quantitative study disciplines and sources deductively; ◦ PubMed – a service of the US National Library of Medicine; it includes over 17 million  citations from MEDLINE and life science ◦ the research questions, hypotheses or journals for biomedical articles since 1950s objectives ◦ Proquest – enables a researcher to search ◦ the literature review many different databases ◦ the theory case of the study ◦ EBSCO publishing – a for-fee online ◦ the methods section research service, including full-text databases subject indexes, point of care medical Suggestions in Defining Terms – define a reference, historical digital archives and e- term when it first appears in the proposal books - write definitions at a specific operational or ◦ Sociological Abstracts – indexes over applied level 2,000 journals, conference papers, relevant - do not define terms in everyday language dissertation listings, book reviews and - researchers might define terms so that they selected books in sociology, social work and accomplish different goals related fields - develop a separate section and clearly set off ◦ Social Sciences Citation Index – indexes the terms and their definitions 1,700 journal spanning 50 disciplines and selectively indexes relevant items from over 3,300 scientific and technical journals Suggestions for Searching Computer Databases – use both free, online literature and those available in academic library - search several databases - use guides to terms to locate articles - locate an article that is close to the topic - use databases that provide access to full-text copies Priority for Selecting Literature Material 1. Start with the broad syntheses of the literature (when first time to examine a topic). 2. Turn to journal articles in respected national journals. Start with the most recent issues and look for studies about the topic and then work backward. 3. Turn to books related to the topics. 4. Look for recent conference papers. 5. Scan entries in Dissertation Abstracts. 6. Look for literature review on the web. The Definition of Terms – terms outside the field of study - operationalize the terms when they first appear in the paper - define terms to add precision to a scientific study - define terms introduced in all sections of the research plan: ◦ the title of the study ◦ the problem statement ◦ the purpose statement