Psychology An Exploration PDF

Psychology An Exploration Fourth Edition Chapter 1 The Science of Psychology Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Learning Objectives (1 of 2) 1.1 Describ...

Psychology An Exploration Fourth Edition Chapter 1 The Science of Psychology Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Learning Objectives (1 of 2) 1.1 Describe the contributions of some of the early pioneers in psychology. 1.2 Summarize the basic ideas and the important people behind the early approaches known as Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism. 1.3 Summarize the basic ideas behind the seven modern perspectives in psychology. 1.4 Differentiate between the various types of professionals within the field of psychology. 1.5 Recall the five steps of the scientific approach. 1.6 Compare and contrast some of the methods used to describe behavior. Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Learning Objectives (2 of 2) 1.7 Explain how researchers use the correlational technique to study relationships between two or more variables. 1.8 Identify the steps involved in designing an experiment. 1.9 Recall two common sources of problems in an experiment and some ways to control for these effects. 1.10 Identify some of the common ethical guidelines for doing research with people. 1.11 Explain why psychologists sometimes use animals in their research. 1.12 Recall the basic criteria for critical thinking that people can use in their everyday lives. Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The History of Psychology Psychology: the scientific study of behavior and mental processes – Behavior: outward or overt actions and reactions – Mental processes: internal, covert activity of our minds Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved In the Beginning: Wundt, Titchener, and James (1 of 3) Learning Objective 1.1 Describe the contributions of some of the early pioneers in psychology. Wilhelm Wundt’s psychology laboratory – Germany in 1879 – Developed the technique of objective introspection: the process of objectively examining and measuring one’s thoughts and mental activities Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved In the Beginning: Wundt, Titchener, and James (2 of 3) – Edward Titchener ▪Wundt’s student; brought structuralism to America – Margaret Washburn ▪Titchener’s student; first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology – Structuralism died out in the early 1900s Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved In the Beginning: Wundt, Titchener, and James (3 of 3) William James and Functionalism – How the mind allows people to adapt, live, work, and play – James and Principles of Psychology – Mary Whiton Calkins ▪Denied Ph.D. because she was a woman – African Americans and early psychology – Influenced modern fields of educational, industrial, and organizational psychology Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Three Influential Approaches: Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, and Behaviorism (1 of 3) Learning Objective 1.2 Summarize the basic ideas and the important people behind the early approaches known as Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism. Gestalt – An organized whole – Started with Wertheimer, who studied sensation and perception – Gestalt ideas now part of study of cognitive psychology Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 1.2 A Gestalt Perception The eye tends to “fill in” the blanks here and sees both of these figures as circles rather than as a series of dots or a broken line. Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Three Influential Approaches: Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, and Behaviorism (2 of 3) Psychoanalysis: theory and therapy based on the work of Sigmund Freud Freud’s patients suffered from nervous disorders with no apparent physical cause. – Proposed the existence of an unconscious (unaware) mind into which we push—or repress—our threatening urges and desires – Believed that these repressed urges, in trying to surface, created nervous disorders – Stressed importance of early childhood experiences Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Three Influential Approaches: Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, and Behaviorism (3 of 3) Pavlov, Watson, and the Dawn of Behaviorism – Behaviorism focuses on observable behavior only – Must be directly seen and measured – Proposed by John B. Watson ▪Based on Pavlov’s work, who demonstrated that a reflex could be conditioned or learned ▪Watson believed that phobias were learned –Case of “Little Albert”: baby taught to fear a white rat – Mary Cover Jones: early pioneer in behavior therapy Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Modern Perspectives (1 of 6) Learning Objective 1.3 Summarize the basic ideas behind the seven modern perspectives in psychology. Objective 1.4 Modern Perspectives: Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers Psychodynamic Perspective – Modern version of psychoanalysis – More focused on development of a sense of self and discovery of motivations behind a person’s behavior other than sexual motivations Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Modern Perspectives (2 of 6) Behavioral Perspective – B. F. Skinner studied operant conditioning of voluntary behavior – Behaviorism became a major force in the twentieth century – Skinner introduced the concept of reinforcement to behaviorism Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Modern Perspectives (3 of 6) Humanistic Perspective – Reaction to both psychoanalytic theory and behaviorism – People have free will: the freedom to choose their own destiny and strive for self-actualization – Early founders: ▪Abraham Maslow ▪Carl Rogers Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Modern Perspectives (4 of 6) Cognitive Perspective – Focuses on memory, intelligence, perception, problem solving, and learning Sociocultural Perspective – Focuses on relationship between social behavior and culture – Lev Vygotsky used sociocultural concepts in forming his theory of children’s cognitive development Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Modern Perspectives (5 of 6) Biopsychological Perspective – Attributes human and animal behavior to biological events occurring in the body, such as genetic influences, hormones, and activity of nervous system Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Modern Perspectives (6 of 6) Evolutionary Perspective – Focuses on the biological bases of universal mental characteristics that all humans share – Looks at how mind works and why it works as it does – Behavior seen as having an adaptive or survival value Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Psychological Professionals and Areas of Specialization (1 of 2) Learning Objective 1.4 Differentiate between the various types of professionals within the field of psychology. Psychologist – Professional with an academic degree and specialized training in one or more areas of psychology – May specialize in any one of a large number of areas ▪Clinical, counseling, developmental, social, and personality, among others – Basic research and applied research Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Psychological Professionals and Areas of Specialization (2 of 2) Psychiatrist – Medical doctor who has specialized in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders Psychiatric social worker – Social worker with some training in therapy methods who focuses on environmental conditions that can impact mental disorders, such as poverty, overcrowding, stress, and drug abuse Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Work Settings of Psychology Where Psychologists Work Percentage of Total University and four-year colleges 35% Self-employed 21% Private for profit 18% Private not for profit 9% Schools/ other educational settings 7% State and local government 6% Federal government 4% Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Subfields of Psychology Subfields of Psychology Percentage of Total Clinical 34% Counseling 13% Developmental 12% Experimental and other research areas 8% Cognitive 6% General 6% Social and personality 6% Industrial/organizational 5% School 4% Other 4% Educational 2% Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Scientific Approach (1 of 2) Learning Objective 1.5 Recall the five steps of the scientific approach. Scientific approach: system of gathering data so that bias and error in measurement are reduced Psychology’s goals: – Description: What is happening? – Explanation: Why is it happening? – Prediction: When will it happen again? – Control: How can it be changed? Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Scientific Approach (2 of 2) Steps in the scientific approach: – Perceive the question – Form a hypothesis – Test the hypothesis – Draw conclusions – Report your results ▪Others may replicate study or experiment to see if same results will be obtained to demonstrate reliability Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Descriptive Methods (1 of 4) Learning Objective 1.6 Compare and contrast some of the methods used to describe behavior. Naturalistic Observation – Watching animals or humans behave in their normal environment – Major advantage: realistic picture of behavior – Disadvantages ▪Observer effect ▪Observer bias ▪Each naturalistic setting is unique Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Descriptive Methods (2 of 4) Laboratory Observation – Watching animals or humans behave in a laboratory setting – Advantages ▪Control over environment ▪Allows use of specialized equipment – Disadvantage ▪Artificial situation may result in artificial behavior Leads to formation of testable hypotheses Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Descriptive Methods (3 of 4) Case Studies – Study of one individual in great detail – Advantage: tremendous amount of detail – Disadvantage: cannot apply to others – Famous case study: Phineas Gage Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Descriptive Methods (4 of 4) Surveys – Researchers ask a series of questions about the topic under study – Given to representative sample of population – Population: entire group of people or animals in which researcher is interested – Advantages: data from large numbers of people; study covert behaviors – Disadvantages: must ensure representative sample or results not meaningful; courtesy bias Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Correlations: Finding Relationships (1 of 3) Learning Objective 1.7 Explain how researchers use the correlational technique to study relationships between two or more variables..9 Correlational Technique Correlation – Measure of relationship between two variables ▪Variable: anything that can change or vary ▪Knowing value of one variable allows researchers to predict the value of other variable – Measures of two variables go into a mathematical formula and produce a correlation coefficient (r), which represents two things: ▪Direction of the relationship ▪Strength of the relationship Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Correlations: Finding Relationships (2 of 3) Correlation coefficient ranges from -1.00 to +1.00 The closer to +1.00 or -1.00, the stronger the relationship between the variables – No correlation = 0.0 – Perfect correlation = -1.00 or +1.00 Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Correlations: Finding Relationships (3 of 3) Positive correlation: variables are related in the same direction – As one increases, the other increases – As one decreases, the other decreases Negative correlation: variables are related in opposite direction – As one increases, the other decreases Correlation does not prove causation! Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 1.4 Five Scatterplots These scatterplots show direction and strength of correlation. It should be noted that perfect correlations, whether positive or negative, rarely occur in the real world. Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Experiment (1 of 4) Learning Objective 1.8 Identify the steps involved in designing an experiment.1.10 Experimental Approach and Terms Experiment – A deliberate manipulation of a variable to see whether corresponding changes in behavior result, allowing the determination of cause-and-effect relationships Operationalization: specific definition of a variable of interest that allows it to be directly measured – Example: definition of aggressive play Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Experiment (2 of 4) Independent variable (IV) – Variable in an experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter – Example of IV: violent TV Dependent variable (DV) – Variable in an experiment that represents the measurable response or behavior of subjects in the experiment – Example of DV: aggressive play Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Experiment (3 of 4) Experimental group – Subjects in an experiment who are subjected to the independent variable – Experimental group: watch TV Control group – Subjects in an experiment not subjected to the independent variable and who may receive a placebo treatment (controls for confounding variables) – Control group: no TV Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Experiment (4 of 4) Importance of Randomization – Random assignment: process of assigning subjects to experimental or control groups randomly, so that each subject has an equal chance of being in either group – Controls for confounding (extraneous, interfering) variables Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Experimental Hazards and Controlling for Effects (1 of 2) Learning Objective 1.9 Recall two common sources of problems in an experiment and some ways to control for these effects. Placebo effect – Phenomenon in which the expectations of participants in a study can influence their behavior Experimenter effect – Tendency of experimenter’s expectations for a study to unintentionally influence results of the study Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Experimental Hazards and Controlling for Effects (2 of 2) Single-blind study – Subjects do not know whether they are in experimental or control group – Reduces placebo effect Double-blind study – Neither the experimenter nor the subjects know which subjects are in the experimental or control group – Reduces placebo effect and experimenter effect Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved A Sample Experiment (1 of 2) Hypothesis – Knowing that other people might think one’s success in school is due to athletic ability rather than intelligence can make an athlete perform poorly on an academic test Independent variable – Timing of “high threat” question Dependent variable – Test scores Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved A Sample Experiment (2 of 2) Experimental group – Answered “high threat” question before taking the test Control group – Answered “high threat” question after taking the test Results-supported hypothesis – Those asked the “high threat” question before the intellectual test scored significantly lower on that test Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Guidelines for Doing Research with People (1 of 2) Learning Objective 1.10 Identify some of the common ethical guidelines for doing research with people. Institutional review boards – Groups of psychologists or other professionals who look over each proposed research study and judge it according to its safety and consideration for the participants in the study Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Guidelines for Doing Research with People (2 of 2) Common Ethical Guidelines  Rights and well-being of participants must be weighed against the study’s value to science.  Participants must be allowed to make informed decision.  Deception must be justified.  Participants may withdraw from study at any time.  Participants must be protected from risks or told explicitly of risks.  Investigators must fully debrief participants.  Data must remain confidential.  If study results in undesirable consequences, researcher responsible for detecting/removing/correcting. Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Animal Research Learning Objective 1.11 Explain why psychologists sometimes use animals in their research. Animal research answers questions we could never investigate with human research. The focus is on avoiding exposing animal subjects to unnecessary pain or suffering. Animals are used in approximately 7 percent of psychological studies. Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Thinking Critically About Critical Thinking (1 of 2) Learning Objective 1.12 Recall the basic criteria for critical thinking that people can use in their everyday lives.1.14 Principles of Critical Thinking Critical thinking – Making reasoned judgments about claims Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Thinking Critically About Critical Thinking (2 of 2) Four basic criteria: 1. There are very few “truths” that do not need to be subjected to testing. 2. All evidence is not equal in quality. 3. Just because someone is considered to be an authority or to have a lot of expertise does not make everything that person claims automatically true. 4. Critical thinking requires an open mind. Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Copyright Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved