AP Psychology Unit 3-2 PDF

Adolescents (Module 12) Adolescence ​ The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extended from puberty to independence. ​ Starts with sexual maturation ​ Has changed over the past century Puberty ​ The period of sexual maturation during which a person becomes capable of re...

Adolescents (Module 12) Adolescence ​ The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extended from puberty to independence. ​ Starts with sexual maturation ​ Has changed over the past century Puberty ​ The period of sexual maturation during which a person becomes capable of reproducing. ​ Starts at approximately age 11 in females and age 13 in males ​ Major growth spurt Primary Sex Characteristics ​ The reproductive organs ○​ ovaries in females ○​ testes in males ○​ external genitalia. ​ Menarche – beginning of menstruation Secondary Sex Characteristics ​ Nonreproductive sexual characteristics ​ Nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as ​ breasts and hip development in females ​ voice quality and facial hair in males. Sexual Orientation ​ Enduring sexual attraction toward people of the other gender (heterosexuality), or one’s gender (homosexuality). ​ One’s attraction toward people of a particular gender ​ Usually heterosexual or homosexual; small minority bisexual Heterosexual ​ A sexual orientation in which a person is attracted to members of the opposite sex ​ “Straight” Homosexual ​ A sexual orientation in which a person is attracted to members of the same sex ​ Approximately 3-4% of the male population and 1-2% of the female population Jean Piaget (pee-ah-ZHAY) ​ Pioneer in the study of developmental psychology who introduced a stage theory of cognitive development that led to a better understanding of children’s thought processes. ​ Proposed a cognitive theory consisting of four stages Formal Operational Stage ​ Piaget’s fourth and final stage of cognitive development ​ The person can think logically, hypothetically, and in the abstract ​ Qualitative change over the thinking of a child Lawrence Kohlberg (1927 – 1987) ​ Created a three-stage theory of moral development. Preconventional Moral Reasoning ​ Characterized by the desire to avoid punishment or gain reward ​ Typically children under the age of 9 ​ “Heinz was wrong to steal the drug because he was put in jail.” ​ “Heinz was right to steal the drug because he would then have the companionship of his wife longer.” Conventional Moral Reasoning ​ Primary concern is to fit in and play the role of a good citizen and to follow the rules and laws. ​ Typical of most adults ​ “Heinz was wrong to steal the drug because stealing breaks the law.” ​ “Heinz was right to steal the drug because most people would do what they must to protect a family member.” Postconventional Moral Reasoning ​ Characterized by references to universal ethical principles that represent the rights or obligations of all people ​ Most adults do not reach this level. ​ “Heinz was wrong because everyone must respect the property of others, even the property of a selfish and greedy druggist.” ​ “Heinz was justified because everyone has a right to live, and he was simply trying to help his wife stay alive.” Lawrence Kohlberg Moral Development Evaluating Kohlberg  ​ Kohlberg’s participants were all white males ​ Individualism cultures ​ Communal cultures ​ Reasoning versus feelings Erik Erikson (1902 – 1994) ​ Created an 8-stage theory of social development. ​ Each stage has its own psychosocial, developmental task. Identity ​ One’s sense of self; ​ According to Erikson, an adolescence task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles. ​ A strong, consistent sense of who and what a person is Intimacy ​ In Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving, open relationships; ​ a primary task in early adulthood. ​ Not necessarily one’s spouse or a sexual relationship Independence ​ In Western cultures begins in childhood ​ Primary attachment becomes one’s peers Continuity and Stages ​ How much of the behavior is continuous and how much follows a more stage-like development? Stability and Change ​ Which developmental traits remain stable over time, and which change? Nature and Nurture ​ How much of our behavior is due to nature and how much is due to nurture? ​ How do nature and nurture interact in development? Adulthood and Aging (module 13) Periods of Adulthood ​ Social Clock ​ The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement. ​ The “best” timing for certain life events ​ The timing varies from culture to culture. Emerging Adulthood ​ A period from the late teens to the mid-twenties (and sometimes later), bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood. Menopause ​ When the menstrual cycle ends; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines. ​ Usually occurs between age 45 and 55 ​ Does not usually lead to depression Alzheimer’s Disease ​ A progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and finally, physical functioning. Senile Dementia ​ Mental disintegration that accompanies alcoholism, tumor, stroke, aging, and most often, Alzheimer's disease. ​ Increases as you get older Fluid Intelligence ​ The ability to reason speedily and abstractly. ​ Can be used to solve novel logic problems ​ Declines as people get older Crystallized Intelligence ​ Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills. ​ Tends to increase with age College Majors ​ Most college students:  ​ change their initial major field ​ Cannot accurately predict the career they will have in later life ​ Change careers once they enter the workforce Commitment to Love ​ An important factor in adult happiness ​ Lasting love includes: ​ Intimate self-disclosure ​ Shared emotional and material support ​ Similar interests and values Commitment to Children ​ Children result in a change in the marital relationship ​ Potential disagreement on the division of labor with children Empty Nest ​ The change married couples go through as a result of their children leaving home ​ Not necessarily a negative event for couples Overall Life Satisfaction ​ Most studies show the elderly as happy and satisfied with life. ​ People tend to mellow with age. ​ Most regrets focus on what the person didn’t do rather than mistakes they have made in life. Reactions to Death ​ Reactions to death are different from culture to culture. ​ Attitudes toward death and dying are changing in the United States. --more openness --facing death with dignity; hospice helps Classic conditioning (Module 14) Learning ​ A relatively permanent change in behavior caused by experience. Classical Conditioning ​ A type of learning in which a stimulus gains the power to cause a response. ​ The stimulus predicts another stimulus that already produces that response ​ Form of learning by association Stimulus-Response ​ Stimulus - anything in the environment that one can respond to. ​ Response – any behavior or action. Unconditioned Stimulus (US) ​ A stimulus that triggers a response reflexively and automatically. ​ Classical conditioning cannot happen with a unconditioned stimulus. Unconditioned Response (UR) ​ An automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus. ​ The relationship between the UCS and UCR must be reflexive and automatic, not learned Conditioned Stimulus (CS) ​ A previously neutral stimulus that, through learning, gains the power to cause a response. ​ The CS must be a neutral stimulus before conditioning occurs. Conditioned Response (CR) ​ The response to the conditioned stimulus. ​ Usually the same behavior as the UCR Acquisition ​ The process of developing a learned response. ​ The subject learns a new response (CR) to a previously neutral stimulus (CS) Extinction ​ In classical conditioning, the diminishing of a learned response after repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus alone. ​ In classical conditioning, the continual presentation of the CS without the UCS ​ Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) ​ Russian physiologist and learning theorist famous for discovery of classical conditioning, in which learning occurs through association. Pavlov’s Research Apparatus Pavlov’s Experiment Generalization ​ Producing the same response to two similar stimuli. ​ The more similar the substitute stimulus is to the original used in conditioning, the stronger the generalized response Discrimination ​ The ability to distinguish between two signals or stimuli and produce different responses. ​ The subject learns that one stimulus predicts the UCS and the other does not. Behaviorism ​ The theory that psychology should only study observable behaviors, not mental processes. ​ Founded by John Watson John Watson ​ Founder of behaviorism, the theory that psychology should restrict its efforts to studying observable behaviors, not mental processes Little Albert ​ 11-month-old infant ​ Watson and Rosalie Rayner, conditioned Albert to be frightened of white rats ​ Led to questions about experimental ethics Cognition ​ All mental processes associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering. ​ What effect does cognition have on learning? Robert Rescorla (1940-2020) ​ Developed, along with Allan Wagner, a theory that emphasized the importance of cognitive processes in classical conditioning. ​ Pointed out that subjects had to determine (think) whether the CS was a reliable predictor of the UCS Taste Aversion ​ Subjects become classically conditioned to avoid specific tastes, because the tastes are associated with nausea. ​ John Garcia (1917- 2012)  Operant Conditioning (module 15) Operant Conditioning ​ A type of learning in which the frequency of a behavior depends on the consequence that follows that behavior. ​ The frequency will increase if the consequence is reinforcing to the subject. ​ The frequency will decrease if the consequence is not reinforcing to the subject. Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) ​ Author of the law of effect, the principle that forms the basis of operant conditioning. ​ Behaviors with favorable consequences will occur more frequently. ​ Behaviors with unfavorable consequences will occur less frequently. ​ Created puzzle boxes for research on cats B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) ​ Behavioral psychologist who developed the fundamental principles and techniques of operant conditioning and devised ways to apply them in the real world. ​ Designed the Skinner Box, or operant chamber Reinforcement/Punishment ​ Reinforcement - Any consequence that increases the future likelihood of a behavior. ​ Punishment - Any consequence that decreases the future likelihood of a behavior. ​ The subject determines if a consequence is reinforcing or punishing Positive Reinforcement ​ In operant conditioning, anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with a desirable event or state. ​ The subject receives something they want ​ Will strengthen the behavior Negative Reinforcement ​ In operant conditioning, anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with the removal of an undesirable event or state. ​ Something the subject doesn’t like is removed ​ Will strengthen the behavior Immediate/Delayed Reinforcement ​ Immediate reinforcement is more effective than delayed reinforcement ​ Ability to delay gratification predicts higher achievement Primary Reinforcement ​ Something that is naturally reinforcing, such as food (if you are hungry), warmth (if you are cold), and water (if you are thirsty). ​ The item is reinforcing in and of itself Secondary Reinforcement ​ Something that you have learned to value, like money. Types of Punishment ​ An undesirable event following a behavior ​ A desirable state or event ends following a behavior Negative Effects of Punishment ​ Doesn’t prevent the undesirable behavior when away from the punisher ​ Can lead to fear, anxiety, and lower self-esteem ​ Children who are punished physically may learn to use aggression as a means to solve problems. Positive Effects of Punishment ​ Punishment can effectively control certain behaviors. ​ Especially useful if teaching a child not to do a dangerous behavior ​ Most still suggest reinforcing an incompatible behavior rather than using punishment Shaping ​ Reinforcement of behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired one; the operant technique used to establish new behaviors. Discrimination ​ The ability to distinguish between two similar signals or stimuli and produce different responses. ​ Learning to respond to one stimuli but not to a similar stimuli Extinction ​ In operant conditioning, the loss of a behavior when no consequence follows it. ​ The subject no longer responds since the reinforcement or punishment has stopped. Continuous reinforcement ​ In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows every correct response. ​ The most useful way to establish a behavior ​ The behavior will extinguish quickly once the reinforcement stops. Partial Reinforcement  ​ In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows only some correct responses. ​ Includes the following types: ○​ Fixed-interval and variable interval ○​ Fixed-ratio and variable-ratio Fixed-Interval Schedule ​ In operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards only the first correct response after some defined period. ​ i.e. weekly quiz in a class Variable-Interval Schedule ​ In operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards the first correct response after an unpredictable amount of time. ​ i.e. “pop” quiz in a class Fixed-Ratio Schedule ​ In operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards a response only after some defined number of correct responses. ​ The faster the subject responds, the more reinforcements they will receive. Variable-Ratio Schedule ​ In operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards an unpredictable number of correct responses. ​ This schedule is very resistant to extinction. ​ Sometimes called the “gambler’s schedule”; similar to a slot machine Schedules of Reinforcement Latent Learning ​ Learning that occurs but is not apparent until the learner has an incentive to demonstrate it. ​ Tolman and Honzik’s study on maze learning Cognitive Map ​ The mental representation of a place. ​ Experiments showed rats could learn a maze without any reinforcements Overjustification Effect ​ The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do; the reward may lessen and replace the person’s original, natural motivation, so that the behavior stops if the reward is eliminated. Biological Predisposition ​ Research suggests some species are biologically predisposed to learn specific behaviors ​ Positive punishment: introduces an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior ○​ Scolding a puppy for chewing on furniture ​ Negative punishment removes a pleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior ○​ Taking away a teenager's phone privileges for breaking curfew  Observational Learning (module 16) Observational Learning ​ Learning by observing others. Model ​ The person observed in observational learning. Modeling ​ The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. Albert Bandura (1925- 2021 ) ​ Canadian-American psychologist who is a major figure in the study of observational learning and several other important topics. ​ Studies the consequences a model has on subjects ​ Bobo Doll experiments Bobo Doll Experiments ​ Children watched an adult model show aggressive behavior toward a Bobo doll ​ Three experimental conditions: ○​ The model was praised. ○​ The model was punished. ○​ The model received no consequences for the aggressive behavior. Vicarious Learning ​ Learning by seeing the consequences of another person’s behavior. Modeling Requirements ​ Bandura suggests four requirements for effective modeling to occur: ○​ Attention ○​ Retention  ○​ Ability to reproduce the behavior ○​ Motivation Mirror Neurons ​ Brain cells located in the front of the brain that activate when a person performs certain actions or when the person observes another do so. ​ The nerve cells activate when the person does a specific behavior and when they observe someone doing the same behavior. Antisocial/Prosocial Behavior ​ Antisocial behavior - negative, destructive unhelpful behavior. ​ Prosocial behavior – positive, constructive, helpful behavior. ​ Both types of behavior can be modeled effectively. APA Commission on Violence and Youth ​ Higher levels of violence on TV are associated with increased acceptance of aggressive attitudes and behavior ​ Children’s exposure to TV violence has harmful, lifelong consequences ​ Portrayals of women as victims and minorities as aggressive lead to more violence ​ Viewing TV programming and commercials affects our concept of reality. Language and development (module 17) Language ​ Our spoken, written, or gestured words and the way we combine them to communicate meaning. ​ Importance of language in the “information age” Phoneme ​ In language, the smallest distinctive sound unit. ​ English has about 40 phonemes. ​ A young baby produces all the phonemes of all the languages of the world. Morpheme ​ In language, the smallest unit that carries meaning. ​ Maybe a word or part of a word ​ English has about 100,000 morphemes. Grammar ​ System of rules governing how we can combine phonemes, morphemes, and words to produce meaningful communication. Noam Chomsky (1928- ) ​ Linguist who argues that children have a predisposition to learn language; as though their brains are hardwired to learn vocabulary and the rules of grammar. B.F. Skinner and Language ​ Psychologist who argued that children learn language through association, imitation, and reinforcement. ○​ Association: linking certain sounds with certain people ○​ Imitation ○​ Reinforcement or punishments Language Acquisition Stages ​ Three-step process: ○​ Babbling ○​ One-Word Stage ○​ Two-Word Stage Babbling ​ Babies spontaneously babble phonemes. ​ Will babble all the phonemes of the world ​ Will begin to babble only the phonemes of the child’s native tongue at about 1 year of age One-Word Stage ​ Child uses one word to convey a complete thought or idea Two-Word Stage ​ Two-word sentences showing an appreciation of the rules of grammar Overgeneralization ​ Child will generalize grammar rules so they apply the rules too broadly. ​ Example: “I dugged in the sandbox” rather than “I dug in the sandbox” Vocab 1.​ Adolescence: The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extended from puberty to independence. 2.​ Puberty: The period of sexual maturation during which a person becomes capable of reproducing. 3.​ Primary Sex Characteristics: The reproductive organs 4.​ Secondary Sex Characteristics: Nonreproductive sexual characteristics 5.​ Sexual Orientation: Enduring sexual attraction toward people of the other gender (heterosexuality), or one’s gender (homosexuality). 6.​ Jean Piaget (pee-ah-ZHAY): Pioneer in the study of developmental psychology who introduced a stage theory of cognitive development that led to a better understanding of children’s thought processes. 7.​ Lawrence Kohlberg (1927 – 1987): Created a three-stage theory of moral development. 8.​ Preconventional Moral Reasoning: Characterized by the desire to avoid punishment or gain reward 9.​ Conventional Moral Reasoning: The primary concern is to fit in and play the role of a good citizen and to follow the rules and laws. 10.​Postconventional Moral Reasoning: Characterized by references to universal ethical principles that represent the rights or obligations of all people 11.​Erik Erikson (1902 – 1994): Created an 8-stage theory of social development. 12.​Identity: One’s sense of self; According to Erikson, an adolescent task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles. 13.​Intimacy: In Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving, open relationships; is a primary task in early adulthood. (End of Module 12 Vocab) 1.​ Social Clock: The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement. 2.​ Emerging Adulthood: A period from the late teens to the mid-twenties (and sometimes later), bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood. 3.​ Menopause: When the menstrual cycle ends; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines. 4.​ Alzheimer’s Disease: A progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and finally, physical functioning. 5.​ Senile Dementia: Mental disintegration that accompanies alcoholism, tumor, stroke, aging, and most often, Alzheimer's disease. 6.​ Fluid Intelligence: The ability to reason speedily and abstractly. 7.​ Crystallized Intelligence: Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills. (End of Module 13 Vocab) 1.​ Learning: A relatively permanent behavior change caused by experience. 2.​ Classical Conditioning: A type of learning in which a stimulus gains the power to cause a response. 3.​ Stimulus: anything in the environment that one can respond to. 4.​ Response: any behavior or action. 5.​ Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that triggers a response reflexively and automatically. 6.​ Unconditioned Response (UR): An automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus. 7.​ Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, through learning, gains the power to cause a response. 8.​ Conditioned Response (CR): The response to the conditioned stimulus. 9.​ Acquisition: The process of developing a learned response. 10.​Extinction: In classical conditioning, the diminishing of a learned response after repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus alone. 11.​Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936): Russian physiologist and learning theorist famous for the discovery of classical conditioning, in which learning occurs through association. 12.​Generalization: Producing the same response to two similar stimuli. 13.​Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between two signals or stimuli and produce different responses. 14.​Behaviorism: The theory that psychology should only study observable behaviors, not mental processes. 15.​John Watson: Founder of behaviorism, the theory that psychology should restrict its efforts to studying observable behaviors, not mental processes 16.​Cognition: All mental processes associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering. 17.​Robert Rescorla (1940-2020): Developed, along with Allan Wagner, a theory that emphasized the importance of cognitive processes in classical conditioning. 18.​Taste Aversion: Subjects become classically conditioned to avoid specific tastes because the tastes are associated with nausea. (End of Module 14 Vocab) 1.​ Operant Conditioning: A type of learning in which the frequency of a behavior depends on the consequence that follows that behavior. 2.​ Edward Thorndike (1874-1949): Author of the law of effect, the principle that forms the basis of operant conditioning. 3.​ B.F. Skinner (1904-1990): Behavioral psychologist who developed the fundamental principles and techniques of operant conditioning and devised ways to apply them in the real world. 4.​ Reinforcement: Any consequence that increases the future likelihood of a behavior. 5.​ Punishment: Any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior. 6.​ Positive Reinforcement: In operant conditioning, anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with a desirable event or state. 7.​ Negative Reinforcement: In operant conditioning, anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with the removal of an undesirable event or state. 8.​ Primary Reinforcement: Something that is naturally reinforcing, such as food (if you are hungry), warmth (if you are cold), and water (if you are thirsty). 9.​ Secondary Reinforcement: Something that you have learned to value, like money. 10.​Shaping: Reinforcement of behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired one; the operant technique used to establish new behaviors. 11.​Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between two similar signals or stimuli and produce different responses. 12.​Extinction: In operant conditioning, the loss of behavior when no consequence follows it. 13.​Continuous reinforcement: In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows every correct response. 14.​Partial Reinforcement: In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows only some correct responses. 15.​Fixed-Interval Schedule: In operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule rewards only the first correct response after some defined period. 16.​Variable-Interval Schedule: In operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule rewards the first correct response after an unpredictable amount of time. 17.​ Fixed-Ratio Schedule: In operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule rewards a response only after some defined number of correct responses. 18.​Variable-Ratio Schedule: In operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards an unpredictable number of correct responses. 19.​ Latent Learning: Learning that occurs but is not apparent until the learner has an incentive to demonstrate it. 20.​Cognitive Map: The mental representation of a place. 21.​Overjustification Effect: The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do; the reward may lessen and replace the person’s original, natural motivation so that the behavior stops if the reward is eliminated. 22.​Positive punishment: introduces an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior 23.​Negative punishment: removes a pleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior (End of module 15) 1.​ Observational Learning: Learning by observing others. 2.​ Model: The person observed in observational learning. 3.​ Modeling: The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. 4.​ Albert Bandura (1925- 2021 ): Canadian-American psychologist who is a major figure in the study of observational learning and several other important topics. 5.​ Vicarious Learning: Learning by seeing the consequences of another person’s behavior. 6.​ Mirror Neurons: Brain cells located in the front of the brain that activate when a person performs certain actions or when the person observes another do so. 7.​ Antisocial behavior: negative, destructive unhelpful behavior. 8.​ Prosocial behavior: positive, constructive, helpful behavior. (end of module 16) 9.​ Language: Our spoken, written, or gestured words and how we combine them to communicate meaning. 10.​Phoneme: In language, the smallest distinctive sound unit. 11.​Morpheme: In language, the smallest unit that carries meaning. 12.​Grammar: System of rules governing how we can combine phonemes, morphemes, and words to produce meaningful communication. 13.​Noam Chomsky (1928- ): Linguist argues that children have a predisposition to learn language; as though their brains are hardwired to learn vocabulary and the rules of grammar. 14.​B.F. Skinner and Language: Psychologist who argued that children learn language through association, imitation, and reinforcement. 15.​Association: linking certain sounds with certain people (End of Module 17)