Chapter 9 & 10 - Global Population and Migration PDF

the contaminants in large cities, not to mention the thickening slum areas CHAPTER Global and the slugging flow of traffic. In Population addition, swelling demands for NINE...

the contaminants in large cities, not to mention the thickening slum areas CHAPTER Global and the slugging flow of traffic. In Population addition, swelling demands for NINE and houses, costs of land, lumber, Migration cement, and fuel required have risen beyond the financial means of the Introduction many. To make matters worst, proper garbage disposal serves as one of The Need to Study Population the major problems in the cities, with The need to study population lies the added propensity of throwing on the fact that a change in waste materials to the rivers and population size constitutes some of seas, thus, destroying marine the important features of social resources. Finally, for every person transition and change. Like the added to the world’s population, this introduction of new forms of would require energy to prepare technology, increase or decrease in food, to provide clothing and shelter population can also be a catalyst for and to fuel economic life. Ergo, each social change. increment in demand is another claim Rapid population growth poses on shrinking energy reserves, all at great hazards to the environment the expense of the mother earth’s according to several studies. In complete deterioration. man’s effort to meet his basic Since human beings are also demands, it may result to the species, dependent on the depletion of the natural resources. environment, it is inevitable that Forests are continuously deforested, continuous environmental destruction and dynamite and other illegal fishing also causes negative effects to are unabated, all in an effort to meet human health. In the first place, the needs of the increasing pollution does not only destroy the population. Because of the excessive environment, it also deteriorates use of fertilizers, the arable land is human health. Since plants and gradually losing its natural fertility. In animals are decreasing in number, it other words, there is a complete is doubtful if the increasing number disruption of the earth’s ecosystem. of population could sustain a good Rapid migration to urban cities adds quality of life. Furthermore, with the burden to the situation. Air, water, unprecedented increase of and sound pollution are just some of population is the increasing incidence of hunger and malnutrition. problems of unemployment. Finally, This is because none of the basic in many countries in Asia, Africa, and resources today can be considered Latin America, the number of as abundant. As a result, food illiterates is rising as population production has lagged behind in grows more rapidly than schools can almost every geographic region. be built and staffed with teachers. Recent studies also reveal that large If one would base his estimation family size has negative effects to the on the current population statistics, reproductive health of the woman, he would know that there is an and if remained unchecked would additional 250,000 human beings eventually lead to higher chances of everyday. This figure would further maternal morbidity and mortality. provide the idea that 2-3 babies are Worth mentioning is the direct born every second. Therefore, a relationship of population to the closer look at this phenomenon is societal development, as indicated worthy of attention not only by by income and inflation, employment, university professors and students and literacy. With increasing but also by the policymakers and population, substantial increase in program managers. household income may no longer be sufficient for the basic needs of the BASIC CONCEPTS: people. In most of the countries DEMOGRAPHY AS THE STUDY today, population growth has offset OF THE POPULATION all economic growth. Hence, inflation occurs more frequently especially The word “population” refers to the during the world economic crisis that number of persons occupying a took place during first decade of the certain geographic area, drawing 21st century. Employment is also subsistence from their habitat, and badly affected. Estimates suggest interacting with one another. The that for a country having a population scientific study of the population is growth rate of three (3) percent called demography, and the person would need a nine (9) percent rate of who specializes in the study of the economic growth rate to maintain population is a demographer. He employment at the current level. Sad gathers data about the size, to say, that in many countries in the distribution, composition, world today, population is and change in population in order to skyrocketing while economic growth describe them. He also analyzes the is stagnating, thus intensifying structure of population in terms of factors such as age, gender, race, the construction of the population ethnicity, and some other pyramid. The population pyramid is a demographic variables. graphical representation of the entire The size, distribution, and population according to age and composition are three components of gender. Hence, based on the the population. Size refers to the population pyramid, one can number of people while growth refers determine whether the population is to the changes in number of people young or elderly, dependent or over time. Composition, on the other working, male or female- dominated. hand, describes the characteristics of Below is the population pyramid of people comprising the population, the Philippines based on the 1995 their age, sex distribution, (actual) and 2025 (projected) data. educational attainment, economic activities, ethnicity, religion, etc. The term “distribution” refers to how the population is distributed in a given geographic area. This is best measured in terms of population density. Recent statistics show that the Figure 9.1: Population Pyramid of world today has already reached Developed and Developing Nations, (1995 eight billion population and 2005 Compared). (Source: (8,090,316,304 as of 9 February https://www.quora.com/How-does-the population-pyramid-of-a-developing-country 2024). India has already surpassed -is-different-from-a- developed-country) China as the nation with the highest number of population (1,436,622,447 vs. 1,425,370,009, respectively) as of EARLY THEORIES ON 9 February 2024. These two nations POPULATION alone already constitute more than one-third of the world's population. Prior to the Theory on Although the United States of Demographic Transition (TDT), there America ranks third, a large majority were already established theories on of its population, however, is population growth. One of the most composed of migrants from other established theories was the countries. Malthusian Theory on Population, One way of checking population propounded by no less than a structure or characteristics is through demographer-economist Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834). In his way to reduce fertility rate of the “Essay on the Principle of woman, and exposure to Population” which was first published reproduction is at least lessened to in 1798, he made a critical the minimum. He further opined that mathematical analysis on population couples must take full responsibility and food supply. in deciding the number of children Malthus argued that the recent they want to have, i.e. limit only the population is growing more rapidly number of children according to their than the available food supply.While capability to provide them a better the population is growing in quality of life. geometric progression (2, 4, 8, 16, If there is one criticism against 32...), the food supply on the other Malthus theory, it would be his failure hand is increasing in the arithmetic to predict the power of technology. progression (2, 4, 6, 8, 10...). This While he mathematically calculated gap continues over time and unless the disequilibrium between the people do something to curb the population growth and food supply, increasing rate of population, the he failed to factor in the power of population will experience the so- technology in increasing the supply called “positive check” – the natural of food. This means by simply way of curbing the population growth introducing new technology in such as famine, poverty, and misery. farming (e.g. fertilizer use, breeding, In order to avoid resorting to a irrigation system, etc. ), food supply “positive check” of curbing population may inevitably be at par with growth, Malthus espoused the idea population increase. However, of “preventive checks”, which means developmentalists may buy with the preventing the population from idea of Malthus that this growing to its geometric progression technology-based solution may only over time. These preventive checks be temporary because technology include postponement of marriage has its optimum limits and its abusive and contraceptive use. However, the use may further deteriorate food effect of adopting contraceptive use production, and its productivity may may only be temporary since not sustain over time. “population could soon grow to its In a pragmatic sense, Malthus’ new equilibrium level” (Lee, strong advocacy on the 2003:169). In the end, Malthus was postponement of marriage to lessen only advocating the idea of exposure to reproduction does not postponing marriage as a possible find reality in the contemporary world. Studies reveal that pre- marital sex is family through equal access to increasing in almost all countries in education and employment. Only the world today. Therefore, coital then can individuals may stop or exposure is not only through reduce family size because marriage, because coital frequencies maintaining social status takes may happen even before and beyond precedence over fertility preferences. the bounds of marriage. This can further be sustained by Another contradiction to Malthus’ technological advancement to view comes from another population sustain quality of life. theorist in the person of Karl Marx. However, the development and For Marx, there is nothing wrong affluence experienced by these about population growth because for countries are not true to the other him, rising world population is not the parts of the world, despite the root cause of the recent poverty and technological advancement to misery. According to him, capitalism sustain quality of life for the is the root cause of all forms of social population. There remains to have ills. Rising world population should unprecedented population explosion rather be considered as potential in poorer nations in the world. The aspect for national development. inverse relationship between Large population simply means rich population and development seems source of manpower, and that if only only true to highly developed nations the government would provide better because in most cases, the poorer and equal job opportunities, poverty nations serve as the sources of raw and misery are definitely out of the materials by the rich nations. Thus, issue. The sad thing, according to the interplay of political power, as him, is the fact that capitalistic contended by Karl Marx, is the major society invests more on buildings and cause of the problem. machines instead of providing more The Theory of the Demographic equitable distribution of food, Transition housing, and other necessities of life. The theory of the demographic This Marxist principle on transition can be viewed as one way population is further boosted by the to explain how the world today slogan that says, “Development is experienced the rapid population the best contraception”. This means growth. It is a global demographic that if one need to limit childbearing phenomenon whereby the population the best alternative is to improve the growth has experienced a pattern of socio-economic conditions of the transition from the high birth rate and high death rate, to a modern pattern because of the effort to curtail fertility, of low birth rate and low death rate. thus resulting in low population Using a historical approach, the growth. Please refer to the figure demographers found out that the below. world population is continuously undergoing a series of transition in death rates and birth with the transitions identified as follows: Stage 1: High birth and death rates with little population growth Stage 2: Declining death rate, primarily the result of reduction in infant death, along with medium fertility – resulting to significant population growth Stage 3: Low birth and death Figure 9.2: Stages of the rates with little population growth Demographic Transition Based on In stage 1, the world is Fertility and Mortality Rates characterized by high birth rate. However, because of the According to the demographers, corresponding high death rates, all societies have to undergo these there is only little population growth – three stages of demographic thus a stable population. In this transition, in which the movement to stage, health remained relatively the next stage greatly depends on poor, which is why the way to the level of development. Almost all maintain a relatively stable societies today have surpassed the population is to desire a large first stage and now entering the number of children. In stage 2, the second stage. No wonder, the world mortality rate drastically declined today is experiencing a rapid because of the health improvement, population growth. While the highly which resulted in a decline in infant developed countries are able to death. However, there remains a move to the next stage, the less high birth rate, thus resulting in rapid developed countries are still lagging population growth. In stage 3, the low behind the previous stage. That is birth rate is almost comparable to why the campaign for the use of that of the low death rate. This is family planning method is prevailing in the less developed countries so as they beget more children, while those to prevent a rapid population growth. without having fewer children are frowned upon. Still, another reason for preferring more children is for security and The First Stage: High Birth Rate and labor. In pre-modern society, children High Death Rate are regarded as old-age security – the ones to take care of them during The first stage in the demographic their old age. In the case of transition was theorized to have been agricultural society, children are often experienced by all countries in the regarded as additional labor for the world. It started since the beginning ever- demanding manual agricultural of human civilization until after the work. Intellectual Revolution, when For patriarchal societies, the advances in medicine and desire for sons is one of the technology came to the fore in a compelling reasons why couples opt civilized society. Although most of to have another child. Thus, they reasons are related to poor access to push through childbearing until they health and medicine, hence high have at least one son. This culture of mortality levels (as will be discussed male preference is essentially later), there are some equally cultural historical since most of the ancient reasons why high birth rate is societies were led or dominated by apparent in the period. men. One primary reason behind the During the period of transition from culture of high fertility rate is the high to low fertility, couples may still virtual feeling that individuals seem to opt to choose for large family size be pressured to have children (Week, because of the feeling of 1986:111-112). It is rather embedded ambivalence. There is a feeling of in the society’s culture that marriage ambivalence when couples do not is institutionalized, as it is the necessarily want any more children legitimate means of begetting and yet they do so because they are children. This pro-natalist view about socially rewarded. This means that marriage seems to pressure childbearing, although unwanted at individuals, who are still in the state the moment, may still be desired, if it of being single, to marry later in their is expected to achieve other equally lives, and once married, they are important goals in life. For example, likewise pressured to have children. a woman may no longer want for Consequently, couples are honored if another child, but she may rather do Mortality due to famine was also so if it is the only way to get a lion’s lessened with the improvement in share of their families’ estate. food storage and transportation. According to Weeks, there are Furthermore, secular increases in several factors that pave the way for income likewise contributed to the the ambivalence factor in fertility. significant drop of mortality rate in These include the identification of a this stage, with more and more woman’s role with reproduction, lack people obviously capable of of participation of women in work accessing the latest medical outside of the immediate family, low innovations (Lee, 2003: 170-171). levels of education, lack of This significant reduction in communication between husband mortality rate has been experienced and wife, lack of potential for social in almost all parts of the globe, mobility, and an extended family ranging from more developed to least system in which couples need not be developed countries, as can be economically independent in order to observed in their population’s life afford children. expectancy. In Lee’s study (2003:173), he projected that in more developed countries, life expectancy The Second Stage: High Birth Rate significantly improved, from 66.1 and Low Death Rate years in 1950 to a whopping 74.8 years by the year 2050. This would The second demographic happen to around 1.2 billion people transitional shift, as estimated by in all countries in Europe, North most demographers, took sometime America, Japan, Australia, and New in the 1800s. This period is Zealand, being classified by the characterized by the reduction in United Nations as More Developed contagious and infectious diseases Countries. The greatest improvement that probably caused the high however, would happen in Less mortality rate in the previous stage. Developed Countries, with life Some preventive measures came expectancy starting from 41.8 years along the way, such as governmental in 1950 to 65.4 years in 2050, an health measures of quarantine, and indication that within the time period, compulsory mass vaccination population life expectancy especially among children. With the significantly improves by half a year improvement in medical technology per year. This significant comes with it an improvement in improvement also happens to the nutrition and personal hygiene. most number of population in the what demographers say, “zero less developed countries (composed population growth”. It is the stage of India, China, and the bulk of the where “replacement level” becomes world’s population), affecting around the norm, thereby replacing the 4.2 billion people. Although the Least couples with two children, with some Developed Countries have the lowest countries even falling below the said life expectancy among the countries replacement level. mentioned, they have however, a The phenomenon of low birth rate better improvement than the More and low mortality rate cannot be said, Developed Countries, with their life at least for the time being, as having expectancy calculated to have 35.7 been the experienced by all countries years in 1950 to 48.7 years in 2050. in the world. This third stage has its The Least Developed Countries selective manifestation, as it only include the Sub-Saharan Africa, happens in the More Developed Bangladesh, Cambodia, and a few Countries, having already achieved other countries, with around 700 their replacement level or below. million population. Some studies however, suggested Apparently however, the second that less and least developed stage has been identified as the countries had already achieved their primordial factor of population growth replacement level, but hard and – the primary reason of the world accurate need to be established for population explosion. Despite the this purpose. For less developed significant drop in mortality rate, the countries, the total fertility rate fertility rate does not follow the same remains at around 3.0, which is still a pattern, at least in this particular little higher than the replacement stage. This confirms the earlier level, but significantly lower than its discussion that mortality and not previous 6.0 children way back fertility is the root cause of the world 1960s. For the least developed population growth. countries, the total fertility rate is likewise around 3.0 children by the The Third Stage: Low Birth Rate and year 2050s as projected, which is Low Mortality Rate also a significant improvement from around 7.0 children in the 1950s. The third stage in the demographic Hence, according to the experts, in transition is one characterized by a due time, both the less and least fertility rate almost the same as that developed countries would soon of the mortality, thereby resulting to achieve the finishing line of the “population growth”, but rather a demographic transition. general description on how There are several societal factors population grows in industrial that paved the way for countries to societies. Being merely descriptive, it achieve the third stage. One factor is is not therefore predictive of the the couple’s preference for child future population trend, and if survival than child birth per se. This demographers attempt to predict, means that couples would rather opt such predictions would rather be to have fewer births with an uncertain for lack of accurate data. increased survival rate than the Therefore, the demographic previous culture of more births but transition is more confined to current with slimmer survival rate. Significant state of the world population, the improvement in the economic status future being a phenomenon subject of the couples also shifted their to be seen. mindset of investing more in the Another drawback about this health and welfare of their smaller theory is the failure to foresee the number of children (Nerlove, 1974, aftermath of the transition. The as quoted by Lee, 2003). These question of “what happens after third factors led to the modern idea that stage” remains hanging and the children become more expensive as demographic transition appears to be couples need to invest first on their silent about this. Would that mean education, while their (children) that in the future, all countries would economic contributions are being achieve the stationary population? Or diminished by their school would that mean that another attendance. Finally, the old notion demographic transition will occur? that children are regarded as old-age Nevertheless, with the passage of insurance or old-age security of time, another theorist advances that parents has been gradually after completing the demographic diminished, following governmental transition, another pattern of programs providing retirement population transition is now benefits for the elderly population. happening, as discussed in the Criticism against the Theory of sections that follow. Demographic Transition There are however, several Is There a Second Demographic criticisms against the theory of the Transition? demographic transition. First, the Recent development in the field of demographic transition is not a law of demography suggests that the world shifted to another demographic Of course, new marriage patterns transition. This demographic in this part of the world significantly transition, in the words of Ron paved the way for this demographic Lesthaeghe (2010:211- 212), is one transition. Experts believed that new characterized by birth rate falling marriage patterns as manifestation of below the replacement level, with the second demographic transition mortality rates, although kept in the started as early as the 1950s in most minimum, even a little higher than its of the More Developed Countries. birth rate. This second demographic These countries appeared to have transition is further characterized with decreasing proportion of married a broader aging population but with a population, rising age at first narrowing younger population. marriage, rising incidence of pre- and Because of this apparently “dying post-marital cohabitation, rising population”, countries experiencing proportion and earlier incidence of this second demographic transition divorce, as well as declining encourage the so-called remarriage following both divorce “replacement migration” with the and widowhood. In other words, the hope that immigrants would become cumulative effect of these factors, a substantial addition to the relatively created an environment of refusal for decreasing population. individuals, especially for women, to In this demographic transition, the participate in the child-bearing further decline of fertility level is responsibility. brought by the fact that couples tend Just as the demographic transition to postpone further their fertility theory is bombarded with several intention, below replacement level, criticisms, so is the second by increasing their mean age at first demographic transition. For the most parenthood. This is made possible part, critics say that this demographic through efficient contraception during transition is apparently a pattern only marriage. This is not to say however in the Western countries or among that couples in this country had More Developed Countries so to perfected their vows of chastity speak. It does not speak with before marriage. On the contrary, certainty that it will eventually happen couples engaged themselves in in the Less and the Least Developed extramarital fertility due to Countries. Or even if it will soon to parenthood within cohabitation, happen, these countries will find its either before or after the formal way to counter its negative effects. marriage. For another part, most of the advocates of the traditional Marxist principle, another group of demographic transition believe that advocates opine that population is there is nothing new about this not really the problem, but the theory since it is just merely a inequitable or unequal distribution of continuation of the first one. This is resources and/or development to however contradicted with the facts selected few powerful individuals, if that there are already non-Western not to select few of powerful nations. countries that experience this second It further asserts that the desired demographic transition. Japan and population size will be kept to the Hong Kong are just two examples of minimum once development countries having experienced the becomes the lifestyle of the aging population, and most of its population (ibid.). But the question is, policies become more liberal for is it really population or development, incoming migrants to sustain its or can it be population and population. Advocates further development? believe, in rebutting its second The first school of thought is that criticism, that the traditional population needs to be limited to a demographic transition has its own certain extent in order not to hamper features and social factors unique the nation’s economic development. and distinct from the second As they say, no matter how demographic transition. progressive a country is, its population needs to be limited because the globe is no longer POPULATION AND getting any bigger to accommodate DEVELOPMENT its increasing population. There is no One of the interesting debates in the real national development if modern world is the interconnection population remains unchecked to a between population and certain limit to equate with available development. Following the natural resources. Malthusian principle, some This argument somehow holds advocates believe that the increasing water. It is an undeniable fact that number of population poses threat to most of the resources in the world national development by saying that today are getting scarce. The “population growth can threaten “carrying capacity” of the world today developmental efforts” is approaching closer to its limits and (www.un.org/popin/fao/lisbon/lisbon.h unless timely checked, the habitable tml). On the other hand, following the world will be gone so soon. For example, several studies conducted significant impact to the population in Africa revealed that “five countries structure. Since individuals are given would soon find their population every opportunity for pressure beyond the water barrier”. self-development, they eventually This means that the maximum limit childbearing, thus curtailing population is already beyond the population growth. Therefore, “carrying capacity” of the present development is the best state of water technology, at least in contraception. so far as the five African countries are concerned. But this never-ending debate The second school of thought cannot be properly addressed by asserts otherwise. It attacks the first embracing one advocacy and school of thought by saying that the abandoning the other. Rather, in the issue only pertains to the increasing opinions of most of the number of population that belong to developmentalists, population and the poverty line because it would development concerns should hold mean more mouths to feed. hands together to promote However, if development is properly sustainable development. Limiting introduced, the negative the population with less emphasis on consequence of the growing development goals is aimless and population means more hands to lacks the necessary direction. On the produce. If given the opportunity to other hand, focusing more on develop their full potential, this development without the necessary population would surely become an population control mechanism is asset to national development. This shallow and baseless. The two must investment opportunity can be in be properly addressed for a terms of education and employment. sustainable development. The ultimate result is that population This means therefore that while is the key to development. population programs must be This has been the experience of heightened in limiting the number of countries in developed regions in the children to women of reproductive world. States appropriately ages, the government must likewise introduced development policies that introduce proper developmental subsequently bolstered its economy. programs such as improving the The end- result is the booming quality of life of its people, upgrade economy. In the long run, the standards and quality of development policies created education for young people, and create better job opportunities for the bring mortality under control that unemployed. most of the people are able to take The two must not be diametrically and enjoy a long life. opposed with each other. There are two biological aspects of The Demographic Processes mortality. These are lifespan and The change in the population size longevity. The former refers to the is determined by the three oldest age to which human beings demographic processes, namely: can survive. In other words, it fertility, mortality, and migration. pertains to how long a person can Fertility refers to the amount of possibly live. The latter refers to the reproduction among women of ability to remain alive from one year reproductive ages. This is usually to the next. It is also sometimes expressed in terms of number of known as the ability to resist death. children born by women in ages While lifespan is almost entirely a 15-49. Fertility is composed of two biological phenomenon, longevity on parts: one is the biological the other hand has both biological component while the other is social. and social components. The biological component of fertility Finally, migration refers to the is the capacity of the woman to relatively permanent movement of reproduce. It is sometimes known as people with the purpose of changing fecundity, which is the physical ability their residence. The two types of to reproduce. Thus, a woman is said migration are internal and to be fecund if she is capable of international migration. The first type producing children, or sterile, if she involves permanent change of cannot. The social component of residence within national boundaries, fertility, on the other hand, refers to and may sometimes refer only as a the social environment that movement. The second type involves determines the actual and number of a permanent movement across children to be born, given the national boundaries. Under this, a capacity to reproduce. person is called an emigrant in terms Mortality refers to the number of of the area of origin, and an death in a given population. immigrant in terms of the area of According to the demographers, destination. declining mortality, not the rising Migration can also be classified fertility, is the root cause of current according to choice. It is classified as world population growth. This is voluntary if the migrant decides to because over time, man is able to move by his/her choice. Most of these migrants are labor-related such Convention. Further, this also as the case of temporary labour includes the forced migrants, or migrants, who migrate for a limited those forced to move by period as guest-workers or overseas environmental catastrophes or contract workers from a few months development projects such as new to several years in order to take up factories, roads or dams. employment and send home money Finally, migration is generally (remittances); highly-skilled and classified into internal and business migrants, who are hired as international migration. Internal managers, executives, professionals, migration refers to a move from one technicians and similar, who move area (a province, district or within the internal labour markets of municipality) to another within one transnational corporations and country. International migration on international organizations, or who the other hand, means crossing the seek employment through frontiers which separate one of the international labour markets for world’s approximately 200 states scarce skills; irregular migrants, who from another (Castles, 2000:169). enter a country, usually in search of employment without the necessary THEORIES ON documents and permits; and return MIGRATION migrants, who return to their countries of origin after a period in There are various reasons why another country. people migrate. These reasons are There is also migration by explained by the following theories: involuntary choice. This includes the refugees, a person residing outside Neo-classical theory of his or her country of nationality, According to neo-classical theory, who is unable or unwilling to return migration is usually associated with because of a “well- founded fear of an individual’s efforts to maximize persecution on account of race, income by moving from low-income religion, nationality, membership in a to high-wage economies (Borjas, particular social group, or political 1989 as quoted by Castles, opinion. It also includes 2000:272). This is the most common asylum-seekers, or those people who reason for migration, especially the move across borders in search of migration of one coming from protection, but who may not fulfill the developing to developed countries strict criteria laid down by the 1952 and especially if there is a high proportion of underemployment in political influence, trade, investment, the country of origin. The current or cultural ties (ibid., 2000:272). pattern of migration is an empirical While this is the most prevailing data of this theory. reason for migration, this does not Labor Migration theory capture other reasons of migration. This theory is a new economic As already mentioned, there are approach in explaining migration. It some reasons of migrations which argues that migration cannot simply are not economic or income-related be explained by income differences especially those who are driven away between two countries, but also by from their place of residence. factors such as chances of secure employment, availability of capital for Push-Pull Theory entrepreneurial activity, and the need The most popular theory to manage risk over long periods. explaining the causes of migration is Migration decisions are made not just one propounded by Ravenstein by individuals but most (1889) known as the Push-Pull often represent family strategies to Theory. This theory states that some maximize income and survival people move because they are chances (Hugo, 1994 as quoted by pushed out of their former location Castles, 2000:272). (push factors), or because they have been pulled or attracted to some Migration Systems theory places elsewhere (pull factors). Examples of the push factors are the This theory is argued as an scarcity of job opportunities, poor outcome of collaboration of two medical care, death threats, poor countries where migration system is housing, natural disasters, famine, constituted by two or more countries loss of wealth, discrimination and the which exchange migrants with each like. Pull factors on the other hand other. In this system, it is necessary include better job opportunities, to examine both ends of the flow and improved living conditions, political or study all the linkages (economic, religious freedom, attractive climate, cultural, political, military, etc.) better education, and the like. between the places concerned. Ravenstein further opined that pull Migratory movements generally arise factors were more important than the from the existence of prior links push factors because in most between sending and receiving instances, people move in order to countries based on colonization, improve themselves in material international) constitute only around respects, but they would rather 12 per cent of the world population endure the conditions in their current (nine (9) per cent for internal residence unless attracted by the migration and three (3) per cent for above-mentioned pull factors. To do international migration). this however, a potential migrant usually weighs the cost- benefit of migration. Most of the movement or migration have been considered as an “implementing strategy” in order to attain the goal of migration. The goal can be in terms of advancement in Table 9.3: Proportion of World education, a better job, a nicer Migrant Population, 1970-2015. house, a more pleasant environment, (Source: International Organization etc. It is in this implementing strategy for Migration Report, 2018:15) that migration is selective and more In terms of international migration, apparent at a certain age of the life the increase in mobility is notable for cycle because there is a specific the past four- and-a-half decades. In age-group of the population that is 1970, international migrants were more prone to migration (Weeks, estimated at 84 million while in 1990, 1986:179-180). they increased in number at around 153 million people (see Table 5.2.1). TRENDS IN MIGRATION Europe and Asia catered around Based on the statistics provided by 75 million migrants each in the year the International Organization for 2015. This constitutes 62 percent of Migration, mobility of people is the total global international increasing over time, either internal migrants. In 2017, it was estimated or international migration. In 2009, an that there were around 80 million estimated 740 million migration international migrants residing in happens without crossing national Asia, while 78 million in Europe. borders. In 2015, there are about 244 North America, on the other hand million people living in a country hosted around 54 million other than their country of birth. international migrants (58 million in These figures however remain a slim 2017), which constitute 22 percent of proportion of the world population, as the total international migrants, Africa these movements (both internal and at 9 percent (25 million in 2017), Latin America and the Carribbean at Since 2005 onwards, Germany 4 percent (9.5 million in 2017), and became the second top destination Oceania at 3 percent (8.4 million in for migrants, accommodating around 2017) (IOM, 2018:18). In most 12 million migrants in 2015. Some countries of Europe, Northern other top destination for migrants America and Oceania, international include Russian Federation, Saudi migrants comprised more than 10% Arabia, United Kingdom, United Arab of the total population in 2017. Emirates, Canada, France, Australia, For about 45 years until now, and Spain. Figure 14.1 has the list of United States of America has been the Top 20 destinations. the main country of destination for international migration. In 1970, there According to the IOM’s World are around 12 million migrants to the Migration Report 2015, nearly one (1) USA. In 2015, it quadrupled to 46.6 in every five (5) migrants in the world million migrants. lives in the top 20 largest cities. These cities include Sydney, Auckland, Singapore, London, Amsterdam, Frankfurt and Paris. Expectedly, migrant distribution is skewed to high-income countries. About two-thirds of international migrants resided in high-income countries, around 157 million as of the year 2015. Around 77 million migrants resided in middle-income countries, while only 9 million migrants resided in low-income countries (IOM, 2018:20). In 2017, these high income countries Figure 9.4: Top 20 Destination and accommodated nearly 165 million of Origin of International Migrants in the total number of international 2015 (millions). (Source: International migrants worldwide. According to Organization for Migration Report, region, the South to South migration 2018:19) (migration within developing countries) continued to grow compared to South-North migration (from developing to developed countries). In 2015, the South to without the necessary documents South migration is estimated at 90.2 and permits (Castles, 2000:270). million, while the South to North This is usually the case of labor migration is calculated at 85.3 million migration flows. It is illegal because it (http://gmdac.iom.int/global-migration does not go through the process of -trends-factsheet). documentation from country of origin In 2017, Asia and Europe were the to the country of destination. There regions of origin for the largest are countries however, which tolerate numbers of international migrants — this practice of migration because in 106 million and 61 million, a way, it “allows mobilization of respectively. Latin America and the labour in response to employer Caribbean followed with 38 million demands without social costs or and Africa with 36 million. measures for protection of migrants (ibid.)”. The evil side of this practice In terms of the country having the however, lies on the fact that most of largest number of persons born in these irregular migrants are at a high the country of origin whose citizens risk of abuses committed by host are now living outside its borders, country, without the necessary India ranked one. The number of protection from the sending country. Indian-born persons residing abroad numbered 17 million in 2017, ahead Considering its illegality, it is of the number of Mexican-born somehow difficult to gather statistical persons living outside Mexico (13 data on irregular migration. There are million). The Russian Federation, instances when a seemingly regular China, Bangladesh, Syrian Arab migrant shifts its status to an irregular Republic and Pakistan and Ukraine partly because of the changing also have large migrant populations migration policy of either the sending living abroad, ranging from 6 to 11 country and/or the host country, and million each (International Migration still partly because of the economic Report, 2017). consideration on the part of the irregular migrant. Special Types of Migrants Irregular Migrant Regular migrant may become an As defined above, irregular irregular migrant because of the migrants, also known as following reasons: (1) prolonged stay undocumented or illegal migrants, in the host country in contravention are those who enter a country, with one or more of his/her visa usually in search of employment, conditions; (2) crossing borders without authorization; (3) unlawfully receiving of payments or benefits to overstaying a visa period; (4) working achieve the consent of a person in contravention of visa conditions; having control over another person, (5) being born into irregularity, among for the purpose of exploitation” others (IOM, 2018:20). (Article 3 of the 2000 Protocol to Few countries are able to Prevent, Suppress and Punish document the suspected irregular Trafficking in Persons Especially migrants in their country, although Women and Children). the estimate may be accepted with From the said definition, there is extra caution. For example, United trafficking in persons if it involves any States of America has documented form of recruitment, or transportation, around 11.3 million irregular migrants or transfer, or harbouring or receipt of in 2016. European Union has persons. This recruitment and similar registered around 8 million irregular acts must be accompanied by threat migrants in 2008, while there are or use of force or other forms of around 5-6 million in Russian coercion, abduction, fraud, Federation, and 3-6 million in South deception, or abuse of power. There Africa in 2011 and 2010, respectively. can also be trafficking if aside from Other countries that are able to the said accompanying acts, the document irregular migrants include recruiter, transporter, transferer or United Kingdom (417 to 863 harbourer is in the position of giving thousand in 2007); Italy (279 to 461 benefits to the recruit, and the latter thousand in 2008); Germany (180 to is vulnerable of receiving payments 520 thousand in 2014); Greece (390 from the former. Lastly, for the thousand in 2011); and Spain (354 trafficking to be consummated, it is thousand in 2008) (IOM, 2018:21). necessary that the said act of Migrant in Human Trafficking recruiting, transporting, transferring and/or harbouring were employed to Trafficking in Persons, popularly exploit the victim. Finally, even if known as “human trafficking” in recruitment and similar acts were not layman parlance, is defined as the employed, there is still human recruitment, transportation, transfer, trafficking if the victim involved is a harbouring or receipt of persons, by minor. means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, The end-goal of exploitation can of, fraud, of deception, of the abuse be in various manner. It can be in a of power or of a position of form of prostitution, forced labor and vulnerability or of the giving or slavery, sex tourism, sexual exploitation, debt bondage, or human trafficking are admittedly pornography. Recently, additional underreported. form of exploitation include forced Overall, the proportion may be marriage, begging and organ negligible if compared with the total removal, which became predominant population of migrants. However, this since year 2003 (IOM, 2018:308). segment of migrants is vulnerable to Based on recent survey, women and exploitation hence, it needs special children are the most vulnerable attention and immediate action not population in terms of prostitution only on the part of the sending and similar areas of exploitation, country, but also of the receiving while men are the most vulnerable countries. population in forced labor, slavery and debt bondage. DIASPORA AND Between 2012 and 2014, there TRANSNATIONALISM were around 63, 251 victims of Typically, migratory chains are human trafficking detected in 106 started by an external factor, such as countries and territories. In 2014 recruitment or military service, or by alone, an estimated 17,752 victims aninitial movement of young people were detected. Of these victims, (usually male) pioneers. Once a women and girls comprised the movement is established, the majority. During 2015 to 2016, migrants mainly follow ‘beaten paths’ around 8,976 victims were identified, (Stahl, 1993; Castles, 2000:272), and assisted, or identified and assisted. are helped by relatives and friends Of this number, approximately 15 already in the area of immigration. percent were children. Networks based on family or on In the same way that irregular common place of origin help provide migration is difficult to monitor, shelter, work, assistance with considering its illegality, the same is bureaucratic procedures and support true with respect to human trafficking. in personal difficulties. Aside from its illegality, most of the A ‘migration industry’ emerges, acts of trafficking are accomplished consisting of recruitment in a clandestine manner, and so any organizations, lawyers, agents, attempt to come up with exact figures smugglers and other middle-people. about human trafficking in a Such people can be both helpers and particular time and place, is hard to exploiters of migrants (Castles, realize. Most of the figures about 2000:272). Nevertheless, this migration industry can lead to a social phenomenon popularly known attempted to map the presence of as diaspora and transnationalism. diaspora in various countries. In its Diaspora refers to the community study from 2000 to 2016, it is able to of “people, and often their map 100 diaspora for up to 61 descendants, from a specific country countries of origin and 75 countries who are living abroad” (IOM, of destination depending on the 2018:20). It is used interchangeably criteria selected. Most of the with transnational communities, diasporas formed were from the Asia where “migrants may establish and and the Pacific and Central and West maintain connections with people in Afican regions, and were formed their home communities or migrants mostly for sociodemographic and in other countries”. The distinguishing economic considerations. characteristic of diasporas from other Refugees and Asylum Seekers migrant groups is the presence of Refugee pertains to any person strong cultural, historical, religious, who, “owing to well-founded fear of and affective ties with the country or being persecuted for reason of race, community of origin, or a sense of religion, nationality, membership of a identity and belonging (Vertovec and particular social group or political Cohen, 1999, as quoted by IOM, ibid; opinion, is outside the country of his 304). nationality, and is unable or, owing to Indeed, diaspora, or the such fear, is unwilling to avail himself establishment of a transnational of the protection of that country; or community, is one of the social who, not having a nationality and mechanisms on the part of the being outside the country of his migrants to adapt and adjust former habitual residence as a result gradually in the country of of such events, is unable to, owing to destination, and to appease the such fear is unwilling to return to it anxiety and stress brought about by (1951 UNCHR Convention Relating the sudden change of environment in to the Status of Refugees to be A the place of migration. It is one way Refugee). of establishing a social support From this definition, it can be said system. that a refugee may be a person who Like the cases of irregular is unwilling to demand assistance migration and human trafficking, from his/her own country for statistics on the existence of diaspora protection for a well-founded fear of or transnational communities is hard persecution by reasons of race to obtain. Nevertheless, IOM religion, nationality, or membership of a particular social or political group. invoked in the case of prosecutions Hence, his/her option is to seek genuinely arising from non-political assistance from those outside of crimes or from acts contrary to the his/her own country. A refugee can purposes and principles of the United also be any individual who does not Nations” (Article 14-2 of the United have a nationality, and has been Declaration of Human Rights). forced to leave his/her habitual Based on the record, there were a residence, for reasons cited above, total of 22.5 million refugees in the and consequently asking assistance world by the end of 2016. In 2017, an from those outside of his/her own estimated 26 million refugees or usual residence. asylum seekers were in various parts Any reason outside than that of the countries, other than their own. well-founded fear of social or political This number constitutes ten (10) persecution is outside the ambit of percent of the total world migrants, the “refugee”. Hence, if an individual and 84 percent of them were migrates by reason of war or other accommodated by low- and middle civil disturbance, famine, natural income countries. disasters or in order to seek a better These estimates were the highest life, such case does not fall under the on record, so far. Of the figures in category of a “refugee”. 2016, 17.2 million were under An asylum seeker on the other UNCHR’s mandate and 5.3 million hand, pertains to any individual who refugees were registered by the UN seeks international protection but Relief and Works Agency for whose claim of refugee status has Palestine Refugees in the Near East. not yet been determined (Philips, With regard to asylum seekers, 20011:2). In other words, an asylum statistics reveals that around 2.8 seeker is anyone who falls short of million people were awaiting their the status of refugee. application for refugee status, and Article 14 of the 1948 Universal are therefore considered as asylum Declaration of Human Rights states seekers. A slight majority of these that, “Everyone has the right to seek refugees were below 18 years old, asylum and to enjoy in other and almost half of them were women countries asylum for persecution”. population. Most of these refugees This goes to show that generally, were increasingly based on urban asylum seekers cannot be regarded settings (IOM, 2018:32). as “illegal migrants” provided this Unresolved or renewed conflict right to seek asylum should “not be dynamics is primarily the reason for seeking asylum in other countries, at least for the year 2016. Syrian Arab Republic is the top country of origin where nationals apply for asylum in other countries. In fact, the number of refugees from Syria reached approximately 5.5 million. Afghanistan ranks second with approximately 2.5 million refugees, although admittedly the figure is slightly decreasing from the previous year. Other countries with high asylum seeking applications include South Sudan, Somalia, Sudan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Central African Republic, Myanmar, Eritrea and Burundi. These top ten (10) countries with the highest number of refugee applications already constituted 79 percent of the total refugees. Meanwhile, Turkey was the largest host country in the world, accommodating around 2.9 million refugees, mainly Syrians which is estimated at around 2.8 million. Other top host countries for refugees include Jordan, Lebanon, Pakistan, Islamic Republic of Iran, Uganda, Ethiopia, Germany, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Kenya were other host countries in the top ten (10) (ibid., 34).