Pragmatics Part Two PDF

Pragmatics Dr. Mustafa A. Abdulkareem  Key concepts What is Pragmatics? Context ❑ Deixis Reference ❑ Inference ❑ Anaphora ❑ Presupposition Speech Acts ❑ Direct and indirect speech acts Politeness ❑ Negative and positive face  Wh...

Pragmatics Dr. Mustafa A. Abdulkareem  Key concepts What is Pragmatics? Context ❑ Deixis Reference ❑ Inference ❑ Anaphora ❑ Presupposition Speech Acts ❑ Direct and indirect speech acts Politeness ❑ Negative and positive face  What is Pragmatics? ❖ Pragmatics depends more on context and the communicative intentions of speakers. Communication clearly depends on not only recognizing the meaning of words in an utterance, but recognizing what speakers mean by their utterances. ❖ Pragmatics is the study of “invisible” meaning, or how we recognize what is meant even when it isn’t actually said or written. In order for that to happen, speakers (or writers) must be able to depend on a lot of shared assumptions and expectations when they try to communicate. What does this mean?! Are they selling babies? We understand the message although the word ‘clothes’ is not there  Context ❖ There are two kinds of context: 1- Linguistic context (co-text): The set of other words used in the same phrase or sentence. The surrounding co-text has a strong effect on what we think a word means. For example: Bank (a homonym) ▪ I need to withdraw some cash from the bank. ▪ Most of Ancient Egypt's historical sites are located along the banks of the Nile River. we have no problem deciding which type of bank is meant. 2- Physical context: It is our mental representation of those aspects of what is physically out there that we use in arriving at an interpretation. Most importantly, the time and place in which we encounter linguistic expressions. For example: If we see the word “BANK” on the wall of a building, the physical location will influence our interpretation.  Deixis ❖ Deixis are technically known as deictic expressions, from the Greek word deixis, which means “pointing” via language. ❖ They are words in our language that cannot be interpreted at all if we do not know the context, especially the physical context of the speaker. For example: The words Here, there, this, that, then, now, yesterday, today, tomorrow, you, me, she, him, it, them…etc. So a sentence like “you’ll have to bring it back tomorrow because she isn’t here today” is vague because their interpretation relies on the knowledge of the immediate physical context. ❖ Deictic expressions can only be understood in terms of the speaker’s intended meaning.  Types of Deixis ❖ Types based on which person, place and time the speaker has in mind: 1- Person Deixis: To point to things and people. Examples: it, this, these, him, them, those...etc. 2- Spatial Deixis: To point to a location. Examples: here, there, near that… etc. 3- Temporal Deixis: To point to a time. Those are of three types: a. Present Deixis (now, today) b. Past Deixis (then, yesterday) c. Future Deixis (tomorrow, soon) ❖ Those types can also be categorised in terms of what is close to or distant from the speaker: 1- Proximal Deixis: Near the speaker. ▪ Examples: This, here, now...etc. 2- Distal Deixis: Away from the speaker. ▪ Examples: That, there, then… etc.  Assignment (1)… ? Analyze the use of deixis in a selected story taking into account its different types, presented in the text  Reference ❖ Reference : An act by which a speaker (or writer) uses language to enable a listener (or reader) to identify someone or something. ▪ Words themselves do not refer to anything. People refer. ❖ To make reference, we use: {Referring Expressions} 1. Proper nouns: e.g. Chomsky, Diana, Ahmed..etc. 2. Nouns in phrases: e.g. a writer, my friend, my cat…etc. 3. Pronouns: e.g. he, she, it, her …etc. ❖ The reference depends on who is using it because for every word or phrase there is a ‘range of reference’. E.g. 'the war' example in the beginning of the chapter ❖ We can also refer to things when we are not sure what to call them. The blue thing The icky stuff  Inference ❖ Inference: The additional information used by the listener to create a connection between what is said and what must be meant. i.e. they are mental calculations we have to do to reach an understanding. For example: Can I borrow your Chomsky? (A book) We saw Shakespeare in London. (A play) Jennifer is wearing Calvin Klein. ( A shirt) Picasso is in the museum. ( A painting) ❖ References are made by the speaker, and inferences are made by the listener.  Anaphora Reference Inference Presupposition  Anaphora ❖ Anaphora: a subsequent reference to an already introduced entity used to maintain reference. ❖ The first mention is called an antecedent ❖ The second (subsequent) referring expression is an example of anaphora. For example: We saw a puppy in a home video. (antecedent} The puppy was struggling and shaking. (anaphoric expression) It jumped out of the bath and ran away. (anaphoric expression) ❖ The connection between anaphoric expressions and antecedents is created by using: Pronouns (it) Or a phrase with the plus a noun (the puppy) Or another noun related to the antecedent (the little dog) ❖ Such connections are often based on 'inference' We found a house to rent but the kitchen was very small. (if X is a house then X has a kitchen) I caught a bus and asked the driver if it went near the downtown area.  Presupposition ❖ Presupposition: What the speaker assumes to be true prior to making an utterance. ❖ We have used the term ‘inference’ to describe what the listener (or reader) does. While the term ‘presupposition’ or ‘assumption’ is made by the speaker (or writer). ❖ The use of a referring expression like ‘he’, ‘this’, or ‘Shakespeare’ in an utterance, we usually assume that our listener can recognize which referent is intended. Your brother is waiting outside. (there is an obvious presupposition that you have a brother) When did you stop smoking? (you used to smoke, and you no longer smoke) Mary’s dog is cute. (Mary has a dog) My car is a wreck (you have a car, and you have an accident) ❖ To identify the presupposition, we use the “Constancy Under Negation” test , i.e. to negate the sentence. Example: She regrets marrying him she doesn’t regret marrying him. (The presupposition remains: “she married him”, regardless of whether or not she regrets it.)  Exercises … 1) Identify the anaphoric expressions and the antecedents in this sentence: I saw a black horse running. It took my breath away. 2) What is presupposed by the following sentences? Fred’s wife is 6 feet tall. Your lunch is getting cold. 3) What kind of inference is involved in interpreting the following: Have you seen my Galaxy? I need to make a call.  Assignment (2)… ? Select a story with 100 words and analyze it by referring to its anaphoric expressions and antecedents, presupposition, and inference  Speech acts ❖ Speech act is the action performed by a speaker with an utterance. ❖ We're not just conveying information but also performing actions such as making requests, giving commands, making promises, apologizing, and more. For example: I’ ll be here at five. ❖ You are not just speaking, you are performing the speech act of ‘promising’ ❖ Philosopher J.L. Austin originally developed the concept in 1930s, later expanded by John Searle 1950s. What speech act ‫يقصد ماوراء العباره؟‬ ‫خمس دقايق ويجي‬ ‫املعنى الظاهر خمس دقايق ويوصل ديخبره‬ ‫املعنى الباطن وعد انو راح يجي‬  Direct and Indirect Speech Act We usually use certain syntactic structures to do certain functions as listed in the following table: Grammatical syntax Semantics Utterances Structures Functions Did you eat the pizza? Interrogative Question Eat the pizza (please)! Imperative Command (Request) You ate the pizza. Declarative Statement Can you open the door Direct Speech Act ‫طلب بشكل سؤال‬ Indirect Speech Act Example: Can you ride a bicycle? Example: Can you pass the salt? In direct speech We use such interrogative structure to ask We are not really asking a question about someone’s someone to provide the information, as the ability. But, we normally use it to make a request. function of a question. i.e., we are using a syntactic structure associated with the function of a question, but with the function of a request. It’s cold outside. I am telling you that it is cold outside. I am asking you to close the door. Statement (direct speech act) Request (indirect speech act)  Direct and Indirect Speech Act ❖ It is possible to have strange effects if one person fails to recognize another person’s indirect speech act. ❖ Consider the following scene: A visitor to a city, carrying his luggage, looking lost, stops a passer-by. VISITOR: Excuse me. Do you know where the Ambassador Hotel is? PASSER-BY: Oh sure, I know where it is. (and walks away) ❖ In this scene, the visitor uses a form normally associated with a question (Do you know…?), and the passer-by answers that question literally (I know… ). That is, the passer-by is acting as if the utterance was a direct speech act instead of an indirect speech act used as a request for directions. ❖ The indirect speech acts (e.g., Could you open that door for me?) are generally considered to be more gentle or more polite in our society than direct speech acts (e.g., Open that door for me!).  Types of Speech Acts 1. Locutionary Act: The actual act of saying something, including the utterance's linguistic and semantic content. It’s simply what is said. Example: "The window is open." 2. Illocutionary Act: The speaker's intention behind the utterance, which can vary (such as asking, promising, ordering, warning, or apologizing). This is what the speaker is doing with their words. Example: Saying "The window is open" could be an indirect request to close it because it might be cold. 3. Perlocutionary Act: The effect of the utterance on the listener, which may include persuading, scaring, or encouraging the listener to take action. This focuses on the listener’s response elicited. Example: After hearing "The window is open," the listener may feel a need to close it. ❖ The term ‘speech act’ is generally interpreted quite narrowly to mean only the illocutionary force of an utterance.  Categories of Illocutionary Acts (According to Searle) Searle classified illocutionary acts into five main types: 1. Assertives: Statements that describe reality, which the speaker believes to be true. (e.g., "It is raining.") 2. Directives: Attempts to get the listener to do something, like requests or commands. (e.g., "Please close the door.") 3. Commissives (promising): Commit the speaker to some future action, like promises or offers. (e.g., "I will help you with your homework.") 4. Expressives (apologizing): Express the speaker's feelings or attitudes. (e.g., "I apologize for being late.") 5. Declarations: Change the reality simply by being uttered in the right context, like pronouncing someone married. (e.g., "I now pronounce you husband and wife.")  Politeness ❖ Politeness can be defined as showing awareness of and consideration of another person’s face. ❖ Face, in pragmatics, is your public self-image. This is the emotional and social sense of self that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize. ❖ Face is of two types 1. face-threatening act: saying something that represents a threat to another person’s self image. Example: Give me that paper! behaving as if you have more social power than the other person. If you don’t actually have that power (your mom, a military officer), then you are performing a face-threatening act. 2. Face-saving act: say something that protects or restore another’s self-image (or "face") in social interactions, especially when a face-threatening act (FTA) has occurred. Face-saving acts are designed to minimize potential embarrassment, offense, or threat to a person's positive or negative face. Example: Indirect speech act (Could you pass me that paper?) removes the assumption of social power.  Negative and positive face There are two main types of face-saving acts: 1. Negative face (“negative” doesn’t mean “bad” here, it’s simply the opposite of “positive.”): an individual's need to be liked, admired, and appreciated by others. For example: I’m sorry to bother you… I know you’re busy but… If you’re free,… 2. Positive face: an individual's need for autonomy and freedom of action, as well as freedom from imposition. The need to be connected, to be a member of the group. For example: Let’s do this together… You and I have the same problem, so … Thanks