Ch 1. the subject psychology.pdf

STD XI CH. 1: THE SUBJECT PSYCHOLOGY  ORIGIN OF THE WORD ‘PSYCHOLOGY’: (2 Greek words) – PSYCHE + LOGOS – Psyche = mind/ soul – Logos = science/ the study of DEFINITION: (has to be learned verbatim) Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. ...

STD XI CH. 1: THE SUBJECT PSYCHOLOGY  ORIGIN OF THE WORD ‘PSYCHOLOGY’: (2 Greek words) – PSYCHE + LOGOS – Psyche = mind/ soul – Logos = science/ the study of DEFINITION: (has to be learned verbatim) Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.  NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE: Psychology is a science, based on 3 processes: Gathering factual information, Forming theories to explain this factual information, Testing these theories Psychology is a science because it follows the empirical method. The scientific status of any endeavour is determined by its method of investigation & research. All sciences use the empirical method. Empiricism emphasizes objective and precise measurement. Psychology is a social science; it is not as precise as physical sciences (biology, chemistry, physics), but its findings may be referred to as scientific. However, complete objectivity is impossible. It is a problem in psychology, as it involves humans studying humans, and it is very difficult to study the behaviour of people in an unbiased fashion. Meaning of 3 terms related to Psychology: BEHAVIOR- In Psychology, behavior consists of an organism’s external reactions to its environment. STIMULUS- Any object or event that elicits a response in an organism. RESPONSE- Behavior that was the result of a stimulus. SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT: A school of thought, is a perspective of a group of people who share common opinions. When psychology first emerged as a science, the debate over how to describe and explain the human mind and behavior began. The different schools of psychology represent the major theories within psychology. Following are the major schools of thought that have influenced our understanding of psychology: SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT IN PSYCHOLOGY: (Study in the given order) 1. Structuralism 2. Functionalism 3. Behaviorism 4. Psychoanalysis 5. Gestalt  1. STRUCTURALISM: (Wilhelm Wundt, Edward Titchener) (SK Mangal- page 38) (Baron- page 4) An early view of Psychology, which stated that the field should focus on identifying the basic structures of the human mind. (NOT brain) Wilhelm Wundt opened the 1st psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in 1879. Thus, he was known as ‘the father of experimental psychology’ He proposed that Psychology should focus on analyzing the contents of consciousness, in order to determine its basic elements. This task could be carried out using Introspection (self observation)  INTROSPECTION- A method in which one carefully looks inwards, reporting on inner sensations and experiences. Rules for Introspection: -The observer must be in a state of strained attention -They should be trained on how to report inner experiences The observer must avoid ‘stimulus error’ where they describe the physical stimulus rather than the mental experience of that stimulus.  Edward Titchener was also a member of this school of thought. He wished to break the structure of the mind into different components (physical sensation, mental images, feelings) According to him, topics like mental illness and social psychology were ‘impure’ because they could not be studied using introspection. Nature of Structuralism: Limited, not very comprehensive ‘Stimulus error’ was still being committed by observers Results of study could not be generalized Could not explain ‘imageless thoughts’ Distinguished Psychology from other fields Shed light on Introspection/ self observation Set up the 1st psychological laboratory  2. FUNCTIONALISM (William James, John Dewey) (SK Mangal- page 40) (Baron- page 4) William James was more interested in studying the function of consciousness, rather than the structure. He rejected Structuralism, stating that consciousness cannot be broken down into elements, nor does it reveal anything about what the mind really does. He considered the mind to be a recent development in the evolutionary process, where its function was to – help man adjust to his environment. Nature of Functionalism: More scientific and practical system than Structuralism Emphasized on functionability of content in school curriculum (teach only what can be applied in life) Widened the scope of educational psychology Enriched the fields of measurement and evaluation (by introducing devices like questionnaire, mental tests)  3. BEHAVIORISM: (John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov) (SK Mangal- page 41) (Baron- page 5) Behavior is of 2 kinds- – Overt (observable, measurable, eg: actions) – Covert (hidden, cannot be observed, eg: thoughts, feelings) This School focused only on studying overt behavior (that which can be observed and measured) There was no room for analyzing hidden, mental processes (like consciousness, as it cannot be scientifically studied) Eg: Not interested in analyzing the feeling of fear (because it cannot be measured) but will pay attention to increase in heart rate and BP, which are the effects of fear (which can be measured)  This School states that all behavior is a result of environmental causes, rather than by internal forces All humans are complex machines that simply respond to stimuli in their envt. STIMULUS → ORGANISM → RESPONSE (S→ O→ R) Nature of Behaviorism: Introduced observation as a scientific method for studying behavior Highlighted role of environment in shaping behavior Extended scope of psychology to include study of animals, as a way to learn more about human behavior Explanation for behavior was too simple; people are not puppets who simply respond to the stimuli in their envt. This school did not take into account the concept of ‘free will’ 4. PSYCHOANALYSIS: (Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Anna Freud) (SK Mangal- page 51, Baron- page 392) Freud compared the human mind to an iceberg The mind is divided into 3 Levels of Consciousness: (a) The Conscious Mind- Freud compared this level to the tip of the iceberg, that lies just above the surface of water Consists of those thoughts, ideas and perceptions we are currently aware of at any given moment (in a class, paying attention to the teacher) Smallest part of the mind (b) The Preconscious/ Subconscious Mind: The 2nd level that is beneath the Conscious Mind Consists of stored memories, knowledge and experiences that are not part of current thoughts, but can be readily brought to mind when needed Comparatively bigger than the Conscious Mind (c) The Unconscious Mind: Biggest and most important part of mind Contains thoughts, desires and impulses which are hidden and NOT accessible to the conscious mind (we are NOT aware of it at all) These thoughts and desires could be considered socially inappropriate (sexual, violent, shameful or immoral by nature) Freud believes that the information stored in the unconscious mind is responsible for most of our behavior Even though we are not consciously aware of this information, it affects our day to day behavior without our knowledge (eg; ‘Freudian slip’ i.e. slip of the tongue = unconscious mind expressing itself)  Freud also stressed on the importance of early childhood experiences, and believed that if there were significant problems/ issues faced in adulthood, they must be a result of those childhood experiences. Nature of Psychoanalysis: Shed light on concepts like preconscious and unconscious mind Stressed on importance of studying hidden, covert behavior Contributed to providing education regarding mental health Results were not always scientific or objective Focused too much on role of sex in human life Considered unconscious mind as a dumping ground for all evil impulses, resulting in mental illness and conflict Emphasized too much on role of early childhood experiences  5. GESTALT: (Wolfgang Kohler, Kurt Lewin) (SK Mangal- page 44) Gestalt is a German word, which means ‘organized whole’ It opposed the molecular approach to behavior and believed that a person perceives a thing as a whole and not as a mere collection of its parts Eg: We see a tree as a tree, not as a collection of its colour, brightness and form (bark, branches and leaves) All these individual components combine to become something more If you break it down into separate parts, it lacks that essence which was present in the whole state Key Principle of Gestalt= ‘The whole is greater than the sum of its parts’ According to this School: (2 = 1+1) → This is incorrect (2 > 1+1) → This is correct Tree > bark+ leaves+ branches+ fruits Nature of Gestalt School of Thought: Influenced field of education by bringing unity among different subjects Learning material is first presented as a whole, which then proceeds to individual parts Emphasizes on combined efforts of teachers, parents and society with regard to education and welfare of children.  ECLECTIC APPROACH OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY: Eclectic= deriving ideas/ theories from a broad range of resources Each major school of thought has its own strengths and weaknesses Relying on only ONE approach is inadequate when explaining human behavior Trying to use an eclectic approach will be able to give a more comprehensive explanation A true eclectic approach involves formation of a new theory, which is produced from a combination of several other theories In the past, psychologists often identified themselves exclusively with one single school of thought. Today, most psychologists have an eclectic outlook on psychology. They often draw on ideas and theories from different schools rather than relying on any singular perspective. Eclectic approach of modern Psychology: 1. Biological approach 2. Behavioural approach 3. Psychoanalytic approach 4. Cognitive approach 5. Socio-cultural approach 1. The Biological Approach/ Perspective: The study of physiology played a major role in the development of psychology as a separate science. The point of view emphasizes the physical and biological bases of behavior. Researchers with a biological perspective on psychology might look at how genetics influence behavior or how damage to specific areas of the brain affect personality. The nervous system, genetics, the brain, the immune system, and the endocrine system are just a few subjects of interest to biological psychologists. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) scans give researchers tools to observe the brain under a variety of conditions. Scientists can now look at the effects of brain damage, drugs, and disease in ways that were not possible in the past. 2. The Behavioral Approach/ Perspective: Behavioral psychology focuses on learned behaviors. It was founded on the work of psychologists such as Edward Thorndike and John B. Watson. Behaviorism differs from other perspectives because it focuses solely on observable behaviors rather than on emphasizing internal states. Today, the behavioral perspective is still concerned with how behaviors are learned and reinforced. Behavioral principles are often applied in mental health settings, where therapists and counselors use these techniques to explain and treat a variety of illnesses. 3. The Psychodynamic/ Psychoanalytic Approach/ perspective: The psychodynamic perspective originated with the work of Sigmund Freud. This view of psychology and human behavior emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, and interpersonal relationships to explain human behavior, as well as to treat mental illnesses. Much thanks to Freud's work and influence, psychoanalysis became one of the earliest major forces within psychology. 4. Cognitive Approach/ perspective: During the 1960s, a new perspective known as cognitive psychology emerged. This area of psychology focuses on mental processes like memory, thinking, problem-solving, language, and decision-making. Influenced by psychologists such as Jean Piaget and Albert Bandura, the cognitive perspective has grown tremendously in recent decades. Cognitive psychologists often utilize an information-processing model (comparing the human mind to a computer) to conceptualize how information is acquired, processed, stored, and utilized. 5. The Socio-Cultural Approach/ Perspective: Socio-cultural theory looks at the contributions of society to individual development. Parents, caregivers, peers, and culture are responsible for developing the brain's higher-order functions. Human development relies on social interaction and, therefore, can differ among cultures. According to the sociocultural perspective, our psychological growth is guided, in part, by people in our lives who are in mentor-type roles, such as teachers and parents. Other times, we develop our values and beliefs through our interactions within social groups or by participating in cultural events. Strengths of using an Eclectic Approach: Does not restrict ideas to only 1 perspective Allows new ideas to be generated Provides a better, fuller understanding of behavior Weaknesses of using an Eclectic Approach: May lead to confusion, due to too many perspectives used in the explanation It is difficult to judge the relative value of each perspective in an eclectic explanation Because the various approaches are very different from each other, it is difficult to combine them to make 1 new theory PSYCHOLOGY & OTHER DISCIPLINES Relationship Between Psychology and… : (Psychology’s contributions to..) 1. Economics: understanding consumer behavior, savings behavior, decision making. 2. Political Science: understanding exercise of power & authority, political conflicts, voting behavior. 3. Sociology: understanding behavior within different socio-cultural contexts, group and collective behavior, intergroup conflicts. 4. Law & Criminology: assessing quality of a witness testimony, factors influencing a jury, signs of guilt & falsehood. Relationship Between Psychology and: (Psychology’s contributions to..) 5. Computer Science: Attempting to have computers mimic human mind, memory, info processing, trying to incorporate sensation and feelings. 6. Mass Communication: influence of print & electronic media on thoughts, opinions, reduced cultural diversity, how to capture people’s interest and attention when reporting news. 7. Music & Fine Arts: Music therapy, impact on mood and emotion, increasing work performance.  IMPORTANCE OF PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS VARIOUS FIELDS  IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING PSYCHOLOGY: Helps us understand ourselves better- As we study human development or how culture impacts our behavior, we gain deeper understanding of the influences in our life Gives you greater understanding of people around you- You develop a deeper comprehension of the motivations behind a person’s actions Helps you learn to communicate better- Acquiring skills in the management of emotions or by understanding body language actually improves ability in interpersonal communication Helps you learn to value scientific methods- In order to reach certain conclusions, we must go through objective and patient work. This work is always based on a series of research methods It can complement study of related subjects- Like biology, philosophy, sociology  Helps develop critical thinking- Studying topics like decision making and problem solving helps you develop thinking that is clear, rational and open- minded Appreciate human development in its stages- Understanding how we develop and change throughout our life not only give us valuable knowledge, it also makes us more sensitive to the problems of others Helps develop a new perspective on mental illness- Studying psychology not only educates you on various psychological conditions but also on how to improve mental wellness, reduce stress, live happier lives It can help in future career aspirations- Helps you understand what is needed for different professions  BRANCHES/ FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY: 1. Clinical Psychology 2. Counseling Psychology 3. Social Psychology 4. Industrial / Organizational Psychology 5. Developmental Psychology 6. Educational Psychology BRANCHES/ FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY: 1. CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY- Deals with study, diagnosis and treatment of severe psychological disorders Clinicians help patients work towards coping, personal satisfaction, and overall well-being Clinical psychologists differ from psychiatrists (who graduate from medical school and can prescribe medication) 2. COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY- Counselling psychologists advise people on how to deal with problems of everyday life (issues not as severe as those a clinical psychologist will deal with) It focuses more on everyday obstacles, such as job stress and skill deficits, than mental illness Counselling psychologists guide individuals/groups through interventions to resolve bad living situations Counsellors can aid in career development, addiction rehabilitation, retirement planning, workplace conflict resolution etc. 3. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY- Social psychology seeks to explain and understand topics like social interactions, leadership, nonverbal communication, and social influences on decision-making This field of psychology is focused on the study of topics such as group behavior, conformity, aggression, and prejudice DEF- Social psychologists examine people’s interactions with others and with the social environment They work in marketing research or other applied psychology fields 4. INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY- This is a branch that applies psychological principles to research on workplace issues such as productivity and behavior It works to improve efficiency in the workplace while also maximizing the well-being of employees I / O psychologists apply psychological principles and research methods to the workplace in the interest of improving productivity and the quality of work-life They research solutions to common workplace issues, including harassment, discrimination, low motivation, gossip, and poor job performance (related to Human Resources i.e. HR) 5. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY- This field studies the physiological, cognitive, and social development that takes place throughout life (across lifespan) It focuses on how and why people change and grow throughout life (from birth till death) Developmental psychologists often study things such as physical growth, intellectual development, emotional changes, social growth, and perceptual changes that occur over the course of the lifespan 6. EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY- It is the branch of psychology concerned with schools, educational issues, and student concerns Educational psychologists often study how students learn or work directly with students, parents, teachers, and administrators to improve student outcomes They conduct research on classroom dynamics, teaching style, and learning variables; develops educational tests, evaluates educational programs They might study how different variables influence individual student outcomes CONCEPTS RELATED TO HEREDITY : Genes: A unit of DNA that is located on a chromosome and controls the development of traits. (basic unit by which genetic information is passed from parent to offspring) (DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid) Chromosome: It is a strand of DNA that is encoded with genes. In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA molecule is packaged into thread-like structures called chromosomes. (we all have 23 pairs= 46 total)  Allele: They are pairs of genes on a chromosome that determine hereditary characteristics. Eg: Women have 2 alleles for X-linked genes (XX chromosome), while men have only 1 (XY chromosome) Alleles are either dominant or recessive, depending on their associated traits. Dominant alleles- show their effect even if the individual has only 1 of the allele. (Eg: allele for brown eye is dominant, so having even only 1 ‘brown eye’ allele is enough to have brown eyes) Recessive alleles- only show their effect if the person has 2 of the same allele. (Eg: allele for blue eye is recessive, so to have blue eyes, you need 2 of the ‘blue eye’ allele) Heredity related diseases: 1. Mental Retardation/ Mental Impairment: It refers to persistently poor memory, weak cognitive, comprehension and problem-solving skills during childhood; and below-normal global intellectual capacity during adulthood. These individuals have an intelligence quotient (IQ) below 70. (The average IQ= ranges from 90 to 109) Potential Causes: Chromosomal abnormalities, mutation of a single gene Fragile X syndrome (changes in a gene) & Down syndrome (a condition in which a person has an extra chromosome) are the most common causes. Heredity related diseases (ctd) 2. Huntington’s disease: It is an inherited disease that causes the progressive breakdown (degeneration) of nerve cells in the brain. It usually results in movement, thinking (cognitive) and psychiatric disorders. Symptoms can develop at any time, but they often first appear when people are in their 30s or 40s. Medications are available to help manage the symptoms. But treatments can't prevent the physical, mental and behavioural decline. Causes: It is caused by an inherited defect in a single gene. A person needs only one copy of the defective gene to develop the disorder. Symptoms: 1. Movement disorders- Involuntary jerking movements Muscle problems, such as rigidity Impaired gait, posture and balance Difficulty with speech or swallowing 2. Cognitive disorders- Difficulty organizing or focusing on tasks Tendency to get stuck on a thought, behavior or action Lack of impulse control that can result in outbursts, acting without thinking Slowness in processing thoughts or ''finding'' words Symptoms: (ctd) 3. Psychiatric disorders- Feelings of irritability, sadness Social withdrawal Insomnia, Fatigue and loss of energy Frequent thoughts of death or suicide Complications After Huntington's disease starts, a person's functional abilities gradually worsen over time. The time from disease emergence to death is often about 10 to 30 years. Eventually, they requires help with all activities of daily living and care. Late in the disease, they will likely be confined to a bed and unable to speak. HEREDITY: Heredity: It is a term that refers to traits and features that are inherited from one's parents and ancestors. As a result of intercourse, the male cell (spermatozoa) try to come in contact with the female cells (ova). Out of many, only one sperm is able to establish contact with the ovum. This process is called ‘fertilization’ The fertilized ovum is called a ‘zygote’. In a human zygote, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes. 23 are contributed by the father, and 23 by the mother. ROLE OF HEREDITY IN DEVELOPMENT: (ctd) (SK Mangal- page 127) 1. Heredity determines the sex of the child- The first 22 pairs of chromosomes are called ‘autosomes’ (responsible for the growth and development of most of the characteristics of the body, except for sex) The 23rd pair is the sex chromosome, where the father is biologically accountable for determining the sex of the child. (Since he has both X and Y chromosome, while the mother has only X) 2. Heredity contributes to the physical makeup of the child- Eg: eye colour, colour and texture of skin and hair, height, facial features, blood type) Apart from this, heredity is also the sole cause for conditions like colour blindness, schizophrenia, Huntington’s etc. (which are the result of a defect in the genes passed on to the next generation) ROLE OF HEREDITY IN DEVELOPMENT: (ctd) 3. Contribution of Heredity towards the birth of Twins- (a) Identical Twins- When the ovum splits as a result of fertilization, each part develops into a complex individual They carry the exact same genes (identical DNA) Which is why they look identical and are of the same sex (b) Fraternal Twins- When two ova get fertilized by two different sperms simultaneously, it results in two zygotes being formed They have different combination of genes (as the sperms were different) They differ from each other in many ways, need not be of the same sex ROLE OF ENVIRONMENT IN DEVELOPMENT: (SK Mangal- page 126) Environment- It is everything that affects the individual, except his genes. (a) Pre-natal Environment (before birth): External forces can affect the mother’s womb Physiological and psychological state of the mother during pregnancy, her habits and interests all influence the development of the fetus Eg: Diet and nutrition, adequate sleep, mental state, indulging in smoking, drinking or drugs, exposure to radiation, physical injury (b) Post-natal Environment (after birth) Physical environment- food, water, climate, atmosphere at home/ school, natural resources available in the physical forces Social environment- Style of parenting, kind of culture, nature of friends, relatives, teachers, classmates, members of society etc. ROLE OF HEREDITY & ENVIRONMENT IN DEVELOPMENT: Both are equally important and are interdependent In order for development to be optimal, both need to be present Eg: If you have planted a seed and want it to become a plant, both the seed (Heredity/ Nature) and the soil (Environment/ Nurture) are required. Without the seed, the soil is just dirt Without the soil, the seed will never germinate Thus, both are interdependent and of equal importance in development. How both heredity and environment interact to produce behaviour: To determine whether variation in behavior is heritable (due to genetic factors), human researchers use family, twin, and adoption studies. The first step in determining whether a behaviour is influenced by genes is to establish that it "runs" in families. Similarities in behavioural characteristics among family members suggest that genes influence the trait, but are not conclusive. Twin and adoption studies allow one to check the effects of genes and environments. Twin studies compare the patterns of behavioral characteristics between identical, and fraternal twins. Identical twins share 100% of their genetic information, whereas fraternal twins share 50%. Thus, the presence of greater behavioral similarities between identical twins than fraternal twins suggests that genetic factors contribute to those behaviors. Adoption studies compare whether an adopted child is more similar to the adoptive parents (with whom environments, but not genes, are shared) or to the biological parents (with whom genes, but not environments, are shared).