Captain's Study Guide 2024 PDF

CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 “Until one is committed, there is hesitancy, the chance to draw back, always ineffectiveness. Concerning all acts of initiative (and creation), there is one elementary truth the ignorance of which kills countless ideas and splendid plans: that the moment one definitely com...

CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 “Until one is committed, there is hesitancy, the chance to draw back, always ineffectiveness. Concerning all acts of initiative (and creation), there is one elementary truth the ignorance of which kills countless ideas and splendid plans: that the moment one definitely commits oneself, then Providence moves too.” -Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 1 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 STRATEGIC & TACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS ON THE FIRE GROUND CHAPTER 1 PREPARATION Behavior of fire- fire is a chemical process where fuel, oxygen, and heat come together in an uninhibited chain reaction. It involves the rapid oxidation of a combustible material producing heat and flame. fuel, oxygen, & heat are required to produce fire and are represented by the fire triangle. Fire will cease if any one of the three sides is removed. Removal of fuel. Removal of fuel is typically not an option. Exclusion of air Cooling. A fourth method for extinguishing a fire is to interrupt the chemical reaction of fuel, oxygen & heat with an extinguishing agent. The fire triangle becomes a fire tetrahedron. Classes of fire: Class A- involves ordinary combustible materials, for ex., wood, paper, textile, etc. Commonly extinguished with water. Class A foam and high expansion foams are common additives. NFPA 18, Standard on Wetting Agents NFPA 18A, Standard on Water Additives for Fire Control and Vapor Mitigation. 2 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 NFPA 1145, Guide for the Use of Class A Foam in Manual structural Firefighting. Water reduces surface tension of water making it more easily absorbed by a burning material. Surfactants contained reduce surface tension. High expansion foam 200:1 & up to 1000:1 Class A foam is a liquid foam solution that is made by introducing air into a mixture of water and concentrate. Water extinguisher pressurized with an air compressor. 40-50 feet stream of water. Class B- involves flammable liquids, combustible liquids, petroleum greases, tars, oils, solvents, lacquers, alcohols, and flammable gases. Commonly extinguished with foam and fire extinguishers. Class C- involves energized electrical equipment. Commonly used extinguishers are dry chemicals and carbon dioxide. Class D- involves combustible metals. Water should not be used. Purple K and other specialized fire extinguishers should be used. Aluminum, magnesium, titanium, sodium, & potassium Class K- involves cooking appliances with vegetable oils, animal oils, or fats. Fought with special extinguishers. Most effective extinguishing system for commercial cooking fires is wet chemical hood suppression system. Methods of heat transfer: Conduction Heat transferred through direct contact of materials. Transfer by diffusion. Convection Heat transfer by gas or liquid. Radiation Heat rays from a fire travel in straight lines in all directions from the fire. 3 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 Stages of fire: Ignition Initial stage where fuel, oxygen, heat, & the uninhibited chemical chain reaction come together. Growth Stage where fire develops. Flashover The transition between the growth & fully developed fire. Characterized by simultaneous ignition of the surface e area. Temps estimated @ 900-1,100ᵒF. Steel fails @ 1,100 ͦ F Ceiling temperatures can exceed 1,300ᵒ F Fully developed Occurs when all combustible materials are involved in the fire. Temps can exceed 2,000ᵒF. Decay Occurs when oxygen or fuel sources diminish. Large volumes of smoke containing CO are produced. Lack of oxygen can create a smoldering state that might lead to a backdraft or smoke explosion. A backdraft is a rare explosion created as a developing fire creates air deficient in oxygen. Rollover-the fire or flame front often observed rolling in front of burning materials. Fire appears to be rolling along the ceiling level- 10-20’ ahead of the main fire. Flashover- the ignition of combustibles in an area heated by convection, radiation, or both. Warning signs include: intense heat, fog streams turning to steam, smoking of unburned articles. Needed Fire Flow-National Fire Academy (NFA) formula: Fire flow = length x width ÷3 Ex. Single story dwelling 60’ x 20’ & 1 story high. 60 x 20 ÷ 3 x 1 = 400 GPM 100% involvement = 400 GPM 50% involvement = 200 GPM 4 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 25% involvement = 100 GPM Multistory structures-if > 1 floor in a building is involved, fire flow is based on the area represented by the number of floors actually burning. Ex. Fire flow for 2-story building: 60’ x 20’÷ 3 x 2 (floors) = 800 GPM if fully involved. If other floors in a building are not yet involved, but threatened by possible fire extension, they should be considered as interior exposures, and 25% of the required flow should be added for exposure protection for each exposed floor above the fire floor to a maximum of five interior exposures. If exterior exposures are being exposed to fire from the original fire building, 25% of the actual required flow for the building on fire should be added to provide protection for each side of the building that has exterior exposures. Ex. Exterior exposures- 60’x20’ ÷3 x 1= 400 GPM 2 exposures: 400 GPM x (25% x 2)=200 GPM Total fire flow required = 600 GPM. If the fire flow capability of available resources exceeds the required fire flow, an interior attack can be made. Capability >required fire flow=interior If the fire flow requirements exceed the fire flow capability of available resources, a defensive mode is usually required. Water required >capability of resources=defensive Hose selection: 1-1/2 to 1-3/4 flows 125-175 GPM 2-1/2 flows ~ 250 GPM Safety is one, if not the, most important responsibilities of the company officer. 5 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 CHAPTER 3 DECISION MAKING (4th Edition) Incident action plan and planning “P” The operational period of an IAP is designed for a specific time frame. Typically, 6, 8, 12, or 24 hours during a response phase. Weeks or months during a recovery phase. IAP is a thought process @ a minor incident and a written @ a larger incident. Identifies problems during 360ᵒ size-up. Incident briefing 201 The operations period briefing may also be reflected to as operational briefing or shift briefing. Forms: ICS 202-incident objectives, 203-organizational assignment, 204-assignment list, 205-radio communications, & 206-medical plan. Planning section prepares 202-204 Logistics prepares 205 & 206 Incident objectives are written in S.M.A.R.T. Format: 6 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 Specific Measurable Action-oriented Realistic Timely ICS 215-215A used to document meeting DECISION MAKING The 2 basic methods are classical & naturalistic Naturalistic is referred to by a variety of names: naturalistic, recognition prime, or cue-based. Cue-based decision making is recognition of signs or cues based on knowledge and experience. Fast. Tying together of past and present. Desired method. Classical method is a step-by-step process. Long and time-consuming. Used when the decision maker does not have experience with or knowledge of the type of incident. COMMAND SEQUENCE Level-1 Incident priorities Life safety, incident stabilization, & property conservation. Level-2 Size-up Allows the IC to gather information for the development of strategic goals (RECEO VS). Starts with pre-planning. 360˚ walk-around. Basic areas of size-up: WALLACE WAS HOT Water supply-available pressure WALLACE WAS HOT Area-size and layout/exposed area WALLACE WAS HOT 7 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 Life WALLACE WAS HOT Location of fire, intensity, & extent WALLACE WAS HOT Apparatus/personnel WALLACE WAS HOT Construction/collapse WALLACE WAS HOT Exposure-possible spread of fire/internal-external WALLACE WAS HOT Weather WALLACE WAS HOT Auxiliary appliances WALLACE WAS HOT Special matters-impediments that may interfere with normal operations WALLACE WAS HOT Height WALLACE WAS HOT Occupancy-contents of the building WALLACE WAS HOT Time-day/night Level 3- Strategy: the overall goals of what you want accomplish (For Incident Commander) Seven basic strategies are RECEO-VS Rescue Exposure Confinement 8 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 Extinguishment Overhaul Ventilation Salvage A critical point to remember is that an initial responded will basically be confronted with only 4 of the 7 strategies. Rescue, exposures, confinement, & ventilation will be the initial concerns. Level 4- Tactics how to achieve the strategies; must be measurable and specific. Level 5- Tasks: Tasks or actions; who will do which step and when they will do it. CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT is a tool to optimize human performance in emergency situations. Communications Situational awareness-stress on personnel Decision making-risk v. benefit Teamwork Barriers MODES OF FIRE ATTACK Offensive 9 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 First a hose-line is placed between civilians and the fire. If big fire, a 2nd hose-line for protection. Third line to protect secondary exits. Defensive Master streams on exposures. First arriving officer predicts the path and speed of the fire. Transitional Modes: Offensive/defensive Transitional Modes: Defensive/offensive CHAPTER 4 COMPANY OPERATIONS (4th Edition) Engine company operations Locating fire, confinement, extinguishment, & water supply Nozzles Straight-tip or smooth bore: greater flow & better knockdown. Automatic-can deliver straight stream or a fog pattern. Requires higher nozzle pressure. Line placement consideration based on: Protection of life. A rule of thumb for hose-line stretched up the EXTERIOR of a building is 1length for every 3 floors. 1:3 Hose laid on stairs should allow for 1 length per floor. Water hammer can: Damage the hose. Damage the truck. Damage the water main. Reaching the seat of the fire. Protection of the stairs. Protection of S&R crews. Master streams- flow > 300 GPM. 10 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 Deluge or deck guns Mounted monitors Ladder pipes Tower ladders. Sprinkler & standpipes Sprinkler systems are the most effective are the most effective method of fire control. Standpipes decreases hose-line stretch and speeds use of hand held hose lines. Sprinkler water supply from public water system, gravity tanks, & pressure tanks. NFPA 13-Sprinklers 4 types: Wet pipe Contains water all the time. Not for buildings where temperature < 40˚F. Dry pipe Filled with air or nitrogen under pressure (15-50 PSI). Valve to prevent water from entering the system. For buildings where temperature falls < 40˚F. Preaction Contains a deluge type valve & closed sprinkler heads. Filled with air or nitrogen under pressure. Water held back by a Preaction valve. Once Preaction valve is activated, it works similar to wet pipe systems. Must be monitored for pressure drops. Deluge (similar to pre-action except sprinkler heads are closed and the pipe Is not pressurized with air) Uses open sprinkler heads and a deluge valve. Used for highly hazardous occupancies. 11 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 HAZARDS LEVELS Light, ordinary, & extra hazard. STANDPIPE SYSTEMS Class 1 used for full scale FF Full scale FF. 2-1/2” connection. Often required in buildings > 3 stories high. Class 2 used for first-aid FF 12 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 Often required in large unsprinkled buildings. Class 3 used in both(The system) Designated as wet or dry. (Water supply) Automatic, semiautomatic, or manual. 13 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 14 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 TRUCK COMPANY OPERATIONS Rescue: primary and secondary search Victim removal Laddering Forcible entry Ventilation Trench cut-uncontrolled cockloft fire. Overhaul Salvage 15 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 CHAPTER 9 COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL 4th Edition Commercial and industrial buildings include warehouses, strip malls, supermarkets, lumberyards, and high-rise buildings. Commercial building and warehouses- the height can range from 1-8 stories Building sizes can range from 25 feet wide to spread over hundreds of feet or a city block (s). Fire different from residential where FFs operating on the interior are usually within than 20 feet from window or doorway. Initial 2-1/2” mobile line may be required. Parapet walls’ purpose is to prevent the spread of horizontal fire. Field tests: 1,850 GPM with reach of 200’ from master stream with a 2-1/2” nozzle. Hose-lines operated from windows of threatened exposures will have a twofold effect: place water on the fire and prevent extension of fire through that window. Strip mall- (AKA strip stores or taxpayers) contains a row of stores with a parking lot directly in front of stores. Ceiling height > 25” are not uncommon. Canopies often made of wood framing. Not fire stopped. When considering a trench cut, place cut on side for fire that would cause the most damage. Common cocklofts. Taxpayer- cheaply built stores were erected to generate revenue to pay the taxes on the ground until it could be developed with higher-priced structures. Enclosed shopping mall- concept that resulted in the building of larger regional malls that can contain tens of thousands of shoppers. Found in urban and suburban areas. Supermarkets- Typically one-story self-service stores that contain food supplies and household goods. May include commercial kitchens and restaurant areas. A 35,000-square-foot modern supermarket will require 3k-5k pounds of refrigerant. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) BANNED. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) in use. Phased-out by 2030. Projected 20-50% leakage annually during operations of freezers, etc. 16 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 Ammonia is used in large refrigeration systems, but not found in supermarkets. Instead in supermarket warehouse operations. Height equivalent to three-story building. Large loads on their roofs susceptible to early roof collapse. Lumberyard- may contain sawmills, millwork shops, and large quantity of highly combustible lumber in exposed exterior piles. The presence of combustible materials heightens the problem of firefighting. Heat generation make expose protection critical. Railroad tracks can mean dead-end water mains on a hydrant system, reducing the available water supply. Two methods of piling: with intervening wood strips-fire can attack a much greater surface area. Boards on top of another. Preferred method of piling and can help FFs. In the initial phases, exposures on leeward side will need immediate protection. As fire involves larger area, it must be fought from windward side. Fast-moving fires must be fought from the flanks to prevent fire extension. Radiant heat an issue. High-rise- this type of structure is more than 75 feet tall and presents numerous life safety problems for firefighters. Common characteristics: > 75’ and constructed for human habitation. Dependency on the building systems. Part of the building is beyond the reach of the fire department’s longest ladder. o An unreasonable evacuation time. Core area is the location through which the utilities, shaftways, and elevators reach up the building. May be located at the center, front, rear, or side of building. Can weigh < 8 pounds per square foot. Best way to protect life and control or extinguish high-rise fires is automatic fire sprinklers. 17 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 A dry standpipe system can have independent rises or are interconnected (looped system). Stairwell pressurization- basic premise is to introduce outside air through fans to create pressure within the stairway. 2 ways: Exhaust fan. (Relief valve concept) when pressurization reaches a certain level, some air is exhausted. Fire can extend to the floor above though spaces between the concrete floor and the exterior curtain wall. Safing gap Fire spread can spread vertically through poke-throughs. Holes created between floors for utilities to pass through. Fire that has taken control of a floor area more than 10k square feet is beyond the control of hand-held lines. Wind shear- not unusual for a 60-story building to be built to withstand winds of 110 MPH. The best method of determining wind direction is to proceed to the floor below fire floor and remove a window directly beneath the intended. Falling glass can travel up to 200’ from building. Air cylinders- a rule: when operating on floors above the fire floor, each FF should carry a spare SCBA cylinder. In a high-rise fire, the RIC report to the Ops Section Chief and will generally operate on the floor below the fire. Staging: two floors below. Base established on the exterior a minimum of 200’ from the fire building. ✓ Base can be viewed as exterior staging. ✓ Aim of turn high-rise into a two-story fire. Personnel typically not kept at Base. Lobby control is clearing area for civilians. Relays information from the building engineer to the Ops Section Chief. Rehab adjacent to Staging. Water supply- older water mains often have tuberculation lessening the expected flow. Tuberculation is the reduction of the inside diameter of a pipe caused by deposits of chemicals or growth of organisms on the inside of the iron pipe. 18 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 FIRE OFFICER 4TH Edition THE FIRE OFFICER I AS A COMPANY SUPERVISOR CHAPTER 1 The IAFC identifies the Fire Officer I level as a Supervising Fire Officer. Referred to as a Lieutenant. Individual who supervises a single fire suppression unit or small administrative group (FD). The IAFC identifies the Fire Officer II level as a Managing Fire Officer. Captain in FO book. Company Officer- individual responsible for command of a company, a designation not specific to any single FD rank. 30% of US FF are full-time, 70% volunteers. Chain of command-managing the department and directing fire ground operations. Fire departments are structured around 4 organizational principles: Unity of command Each FF responds to 1 supervisor. Span of control Maximum number of personnel or activities 1 individual can control: 3 to 7. Division of labor Way of organizing an incident. Breaks overall strategy into tasks. Discipline Guidelines for FFs. Orders, SOPS, & policies. For guiding and directing FFs. Functions of management: Planning-developing a program or method to accomplish an objective. Organizing-putting together into an orderly, functional, structure. Leading-guiding or directing Controlling – regulating, governing Rules and regulations do not leave any room for latitude or discretion. Policies are developed to provide definite guidelines for present and future actions. 19 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 Standard operating procedures (SOPs) written organizational directives that establish or prescribe specific operational or administrative methods to be followed. o Permanent like administrative law. General orders, directives, or informational bulletins are short term items; < 1 year. Mediation is the intervention of a neutral party in an industrial dispute. Integrity refers to the complex system of inherent attributes that the determine a person’s moral and ethical actions and reactions-being honest. Diversity is a characteristic of a fire workforce that reflects differences in terms of age, cultural background, race religion, sex, and sexual orientation. o Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972-includes all public and private employers with > employees. Hostile work environment- unwelcomed conduct of supervisors, co-workers, customers, contractors, or anyone else with whom the victim interacts at work. Actionable Item- an employee behavior that requires immediate corrective action by the supervisor. 20 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 CHAPTER 2 UNDERSTANDING LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT THEORIES Leadership- A complex process by which a person influences others to accomplish a mission, task, or objective. Also, “the process by which a person influences others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it, facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives.” Authentic leadership- does not have a clear definition. Looks at a leader’s selfknowledge, self-regulation, and self-concept. Adaptive leadership- how leaders encourage people to adapt when confronted with problems, challenges, and changes. Servant leadership- a leadership approach focusing on serving others, rather than accruing power or taking control. Situational leadership- a leadership approach where a supervisor adjusts the style of leadership to fit the developmental level of subordinates. Transformational leadership- a leadership approach that causes change in individuals and social systems. In its ideal form, develops followers into leaders. Four components central to the leadership concept: 1. 2. 3. 4. Leadership is a process Leadership involves influence Leadership occurs in groups Leadership involves common goals Human Error (James Reason, 2000) 2 reasons Active failures- unsafe acts Latent conditions- inevitable pathogens within the system. Autocratic- a leadership style in which managers make decisions unilaterally, without input from subordinates. Required in two situations: high risk emergency and when FO needs to take immediate corrective action. 21 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 Democratic- A leadership style in which managers reach decisions with input of the employees but are responsible for making the final decision. The best way to size up a complicated situation and develop and IAP is to use the democratic style of leadership. Crew resource management (CRM)- a program focused on situational awareness, sound critical decision making, effective communication, proper task allocation, and successful teamwork and leadership. Situational awareness- the ongoing activity of assessing what is going on around you during the complex and dynamic environment of a fire incident. Power- The capacity of one party to influence another party. Social power- the result of the “target person’s” response from the “agent” making a request (French and Raven, 1959). ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ Legitimate power-the target person believes that the agent has the right to make the request and the target person has the obligation to comply. Reward power- the target person complies to obtain rewards believed to be controlled by the agent. Expert power- the target person complies due to the belief that the agent and seeks approval. Referent power- the target person complies due to admiration or identification with the agent and seeks approval. Coercive power- the target person complies to avoid punishment believed to be controlled by the agent. (Yukl, 2013) Personal power- power that reflects the effectiveness of the individual. Positional power-power defined by the role the individual has within the organization. Behavioral approach- an emphasis on the personality characteristics of a leader. 2 approaches: Task behaviors facilitate goal accomplishment: help group members accomplish objectives. Relationship behaviors help followers feel comfortable with themselves, with each other, and with the situation in which they find themselves. Skills approach- an emphasis on the skills or capabilities of a leader. Focuses on the leader and skills that can be developed. Technical, human, and conceptual Trait approach- an emphasis on the traits of an effective leader. Identity traits: intelligence, self-confidence, determination, integrity, and sociability. 22 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 Impoverished (Indifferent)-neutral Authority-Compliance (Controlling)- high concern for result, but concern for others. Country Club (Accommodating)- low concern for results, but high concern for other people. Middle-of-the-Road (Status quo)- believes there is no inherent contradiction between concern for results and for people. Emphasis on maintaining popular status. Laissez-faire- a policy or attitude of letting things take their own course, without interfering. Team Leader/Management (Sound) Followership- is a process whereby an individual or individuals accept the influence of others to accomplish a common goal. Involves power differential between the follower and the leader. 23 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 CHAPTER 3 LEADING A TEAM Coaching- A method of directing, instructing, and training a person or group of people with the aim to achieve some goal or develop specific skills. NFPA 1041, Standard for Fire and Emergency Services Instructor Professional Qualifications. Describes the requirements for 5 levels of instructor. Four-Step Method of Skill Training: prepare-present-apply-evaluate. Four Levels of Competence (Understanding) Unconscious Incompetence- the FF does not know that they don’t know. Conscious Incompetence-the FF knows what they don’t know. Improved performance with additional practice. Conscious competence- the FF knows how to perform the skill correctly. Unconscious Competence- the FF is experienced with the skill; appears natural and easy. Training has occurred when there is an observable change in behavior. 4 criteria for a good lesson plan: organizes the lesson, identifies key points, can be reused, and allows others to teach the program. Complaint- Expression of grief, regret, pain, censure, or resentment; lamentation; accusation; or fault finding. A manifestation of conflict. Conflict- a state of opposition between two parties. Mistake- An error or fault resulting from defective judgment. Employee assistance program (EAP)- An employee benefit that covers all or part of the cost for employees to receive counseling, referrals, and advice in dealing with stressful issues in their lives. 24 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 The communication cycle consists of five cycles: Message- only information conveyed. Key points for emergency communications: Be direct; speak clearly; use a normal tone of voice; if using radio, hold microphone about 2” (5 cm) from your mouth. Sender- can be person, sign, a sound, or an image. Medium (with noise)-method. Medium chosen influences the importance that is attached to the message. Environmental noise- A physical or sociological condition that interferes with the message in the communication process. Includes anything that can clog or interfere with the medium delivering the message. Prejudice and bias are examples of sociological environmental noise. Communication order model is a standard method of transmitting an order to a unit or company at the incident scene. Many departments use the C-A-N (Conditions, Actions, Needs) process method to provide a progress radio report. Receiver- Person who receives the message. Responsible for capture and interpretation of information from sender. Feedback- completes the communication cycle by confirming receipt and verifying the receiver’s interpretation of the message. Listening is an active process that requires good eye contact, alert body posture, and frequent use of verbal engagement. Improve listening: don’t assume, don’t interrupt, and try to understand. Grievance- A dispute, claim, or complaint that any employee or group of employees may have in relation to the interpretation, and/or alleged violation of some provision of the labor agreement or personnel regulation. Grievance procedure- A formal, structured process that is employed within an organization to resolve a grievance. Investigation- A systematic inquiry or examination. 25 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 Job instruction training- A systematic four-step approach to training for FFs in a basic job skill: 1. Prepare the FF to learn. 2. Demonstrate. 3. Try them out by letting them do the job. 4. Gradually put them on their own. Mentoring- A developmental relationship between a more experienced person and a less experienced person (protégé). 4 qualities make up an effective mentor: A desire to help ▪ ▪ Current knowledge Effective coaching, counseling, facilitating, and networking skills. Systematic approach to ensure high-quality decision making: Define the problem- first step in solving any problem is to examine and define it. Generate alternative solutions: Brainstorming- A method of shared problem solving in which all members of a group spontaneously contribute ideas. Select a solution Implement the solution. Evaluate the result. NFPA 1720, Standard for the Organization and Deployment of Fire Suppression Operations, Emergency Medical Operations, and Special operations to the Public by Volunteer FDs. Describes demand zones and staffing response times. Psychomotor skill levels can be classified into four categories: Initial: FF has basic understanding Plateau: learner retains 85%. FF is competent. Latency: Mastery: to get to this level, everyday reinforcement is needed. OSHA 29 CFR 1910.1030, Bloodborne Pathogens. 4-hour training. OSHA 29 CFR 1910.20 Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER): Awareness Level and Operations Level. SCBA fit testing: OSHA 29 CFR 1910.134, Respiratory Protection NIMS: Homeland Security Presidential Directive 5. Managing of Domestic Incidents: requires IMS. 26 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 Acute stress disorder (ASD)- An intense, unpleasant, and dysfunctional reaction beginning shortly after an overwhelming traumatic event and lasting < a month. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) characterized by symptoms of avoidance and nervous system arousal after experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event: Stress-related issues: isolation, disturbed sleep, increased irritability, decreased interest and self-destructive or reckless behavior. Moral injury- The damage done to one’s conscience or moral compass when that person perpetrates, witnesses, or fails to prevent acts that transgress one’s own moral beliefs, values, or ethical codes of conduct. Occurs when there is a gap between what they want and the conditions they are confronting. 27 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 CHAPTER 6 PREINCIDENT PLANNING AND CODE ENFORCEMENT (p. 160-177) Preincident plan- described by NFPA 1620, Standard for Pre-incident Planning, as a document developed by gathering data used by responding personnel in effectively managing emergencies for the protection of occupants, participants, responding personnel, property, and the environment. High-value property- structure that contains equipment, materials, or items that have a high replacement value. High-risk property- structure that has the potential for a catastrophic (catastrophic loss) property or life loss in the event of a fire. Plot plan- a representation of the exterior of a structure, identifying doors, utilities’ access, and any special considerations or hazards. Floor plan- views of a building’s interior. Rooms, hallways, cabinets, and the like are drawn in the correct relationship to each other. NFPA 291- Recommended Practice for Fire Flow Testing and Marking of Hydrants. Catastrophic theory of reform- an approach in which fire prevention codes or firefighting procedures are changes in reaction to a fire disaster. Authority having jurisdiction (AHJ)- an organization, office, or individual responsible for enforcing the requirements of a code or standard, or for approving equipment, materials, an installation, or a procedure. Mini/max codes- codes developed and adopted at the state level for either mandatory or optional enforcement by local governments; these codes cannot be amended by local governments. Ordinance- a law established by an authorized subdivision of a state, such as a city, county, or town. Adoption by reference- occurs when a jurisdiction passes an ordinance that adopts a specific edition of the model code. o Ex. A local jurisdiction might adopt NFPA 1, Fire Code, by reference. 28 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 Model codes- documents developed by standards developing organization, such as NFPA, and made available for the adoption by AHJ. Adoption by transcription- method of code adoption in which the entire text of the code is published within the adopting ordinance or regulation. Automatic sprinkler system- a sprinkler system of pipes with water under pressure that allows water to be discharged immediately when a sprinkler head operates. o NFPA, Installation of Stationary Fuel Cell Power Systems: 853 Standpipe system- an arrangement of piping, valves, hose connections, and allied equipment installed in a building or structure, with the hose connections located in such a manner that water can be discharged in streams, or spray patters through attached hose and nozzles for the purposes of extinguishing a fire. NFPA 14, Standard for the Installation of Standpipe and Hose Systems. Subdivided into three classes: Class I- 21/2” male coupling, intended for FD use. Class II- 11/2” hose coupling with a preconnected hose and nozzle in a hose cabinet. Intended for occupant use. Class III- both 11/2” and 21/2” connections. Special extinguishing systems- 4 types: Carbon dioxide (CO2)- fixed systems that discharge CO2. Extinguish fire by displacing O2. NFPA 12- Standard on Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing Systems. Dry or Wet Chemical- discharge chemical though system of pipes and nozzles. ▪ ▪ Wet chemical preferred for protecting cooking equipment. Reacts with hot grease to form a foam blanket. Dry Chem leaves residue hard to clean. 29 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 ▪ ▪ Both systems (Dry/wet) can be activated by fusible links that melt on flame contact or manual activation. Activation of system turns off the cooking device by closing the cooking fuel valve or turning off electricity. Halon 1301-extinguishing agent of choice for fire protection in computer rooms and electronic equipment. 1950s-1990s. ▪ 250% more efficient than CO2. ▪ Since 1994, not allowed. Depletes ozone layer. ▪ NFPA 2001, Standard on Clean Agent Fire Extinguishing Systems. Foam Systems- low-expansion foam systems. Used to protect flammable or combustible liquids. ▪ System discharges foam bubbles over a liquid surface to create a smothering blanket that extinguishes the fire and suppresses vapor production. Fire code compliance inspection- periodic check of an occupancy by the AHJ to ID if there are any fire code violations and to initiate a repair or restoration to return to fire code compliance. Regulations- official rules created by government agencies that detail how something should be done. Masonry wall- may consist of brick, stone, concrete block, terra cotta, tile, adobe, or concrete. Occupancy Type- the purpose for which a building or portion thereof is used or intended to be used. Use group- a category in the building code classification system in which buildings and structures are grouped together by their use and by the characteristics of their occupants. ▪ Code requirements are determined by the structure’s use group. NFPA 704- Standard System for the Identification of Hazards of Materials for Emergency Response. 30 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 ▪ Requires labels to be affixed to containers inside the structure to indicate the hazards of the substance. 31 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 CHAPTER 7 COMMAND OF INITIAL EMERGENCY OPERATIONS Fire Ground Command (FGC)- An incident management system developed in the 1970s for day-to-day FD incidents (generally handled with fewer than 25 units or companies). FIRESCOPE- Fire Resources of California Organized for Potential Emergencies; an organization of agencies established in the early 1970s to develop a standardized system for managing fire resources at large-scale incidents such as wildland fires. Fuel-limited fire- A fire in which the heat release rate and fire growth are controlled by the characteristics of the fuel because there is adequate oxygen available for combustion. Ventilation-limited fire- A fire in which the heat release rate and fire growth are regulated by the available oxygen within the space. Initial rapid intervention crew (IRIC)- Two members of the initial attack crew who are assigned for rapid deployment to rescue lost or trapped FFs. Rapid intervention crew (RIC)- a minimum of two fully equipped personnel on site, in a ready state, for immediate rescue of disoriented, injured, lost, or trapped rescue personnel. Two-in/two-out rule- A guideline created in response to OSHA Respiratory Regulation (29 CFR 1910.134) which requires a two-person team to operate within an environment that is IDLH and a minimum of a two-person team to be available outside the IDLH atmosphere to remain capable of rapid rescue of the interior team. Tactical Priorities- RECEO-VS & SLICERS 32 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 S.L.I.C.E.-R.S.- An Acronym intended to be used by the first arriving company officer to accomplish important strategic goals on the fire ground. Size-up- The process of gathering and analyzing information to help FOs make decisions regarding the deployment of resources and the implementation of tactics. Chief Layman (1953) presented a fire-step process for analyzing emergency situations: Facts- things that are known about the situation Probabilities-Can things be anticipated based on known facts? Situation assessment- Three considerations: 1. Enough resources? 2. Capabilities of responding resources; 3. Capabilities and limitations of personnel. Decision- making a fire attack decision. Offensive operations- Actions generally performed in the interior of the involved structures that involve direct attack on a fire to directly control and extinguish the fire. Transitional attack- An offensive fire attack initiated by an exterior, indirect handline operation into the fire compartment to initiate cooling while transitioning into interior direct fire attack in coordination with ventilation operations. Defensive operation- Actions that are intended to control a fire by limiting its spread to a defined area, avoiding the commitment of personnel and equipment to dangerous areas. Plan of operation- develop an actual plan. o Locate- Determine the location and extent of the fire inside a building. o Identify- identify and control the flow path, if possible. ▪ Flow path- the movement of heat and smoke from higher pressure within the fire area towards the lower pressure areas accessible via doors, window openings, and roof structures. Limiting flow paths until fire suppression water is ready to be applied is an important factor in limiting heat release and temperatures in the house. ▪ O-V.E.I.S. (Oriented-Vent-Enter-Isolate-Search)- identified by FO during this phase of SLICERS. Is a high-risk search technique using a team of two to access a room from an outside window, close the door to the hallway and conduct a primary search. 33 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 o Cool- cool the space from the safest location: Strategically apply a brief, straight stream of water through an opening to cool the fire before making entry. ▪ Ex. Transitional attack- An offensive fire attack initiated by an exterior, indirect handline operation into the fire compartment to initiate cooling while transitioning into interior direct fire attack in coordination with ventilation operations. o Extinguish the fire- Fully extinguish the fire, including overhaul and void spaces. o Rescue- Conduct S&R operations if indicated by a Risk/benefit analysis. ▪ Risk/benefit analysis- A decision made by a responder based on a hazard identification and situation assessment that weighs the risks likely to be taken against the benefits to be gained for taking those risks. o Salvage- Protect property from further damage. National Fire Academy (NFA,1999) has developed a size-up system: Phase one: Preincident info Phase two: Initial size-up Phase three: Ongoing assessment Standard time-temperature curve- A guide for testing of building partitions and floors for fire resistance. A recording of fire temperature increase over time. Developed by the American Society for testing and Materials (ASTM). ASTM E119, Standard Test Methods for Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials. National Incident Management System (NIMS)- A system mandated by Homeland Security Presidential Directive-5 (HSPD-5) that provides a systematic, proactive approach guiding government agencies at all levels, the private sector, and NGOs to work seamlessly to prepare for, prevent, respond to, recover from incidents. 5 components: Preparedness- IS 800, IS 705 34 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 Communications and Information Management- IS 704 Resource Management- IS 703, 706, 707 1. Command and Management- ICS 100, 200, 300, & 400 a. Incident Command System- part of the NIMS Command and Management component responsible for the management of assigned resources to effectively accomplish stated objectives pertaining to an incident or training exercise. 2. On-going Management and Maintenance. 35 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 CHAPTER 8 SAFETY AND RISK MANAGEMENT (p.232-238) Incident Safety Officer is a designated individual at the emergency scene who performs a set of duties that are specified in NFPA 1521, Standard for Fire Department Safety Officer Professional Qualifications. One of the primary responsibilities of an ISO: identify hazardous situations and dangerous conditions at an emergency incident. Must meet FO I (NFPA 1021) General knowledge: Safety and hazards involved Building construction Local FD personnel accountability system Incident scene rehab In the absence of an ISO, the IC can assign a qualified individual. NFPA 1500 and 1521- FD must have SOP to define criteria for the response and appointment of ISO. NFPA 470, Hazardous Materials Standard for Responders Hazard- capable of causing harm or posing an unreasonable risk to life, health, property, or environment. Rehabilitation- is the process of providing rest, rehydration, nourishment, and medical evaluation to members who are involved in strenuous or extended-duration incident scene operations. NFFF summarizes incident scene safety: Stop before you drop Stay hydrated Monitor v/s Incident scene rehabilitation- is a tactical-level management unit that provides medical evaluation, treatment, monitoring, fluid, and food replenishment, mental rest, and relief from climatic conditions of the incident. The ISO is the third line defense after the FF and FO for ensuring the obtainment of appropriate rehab. 36 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 NFPA 1581, Standard for Fire Department Infection Control Program, identifies six components: Written policy Written risk management plan Annual training 1. A designated infection control officer 2. Access to appropriate immunizations 3. Instructions for handling exposure incidents. NFPA 1975, Standard on Emergency Services Work Apparel-station uniforms. CHAPTER 9 THE FIRE OFFICER II AS A MANAGER (p.252-259) Incident Command System- a system that define the roles and responsibilities to be assumed by personnel and the operating procedures to be used in the management and direction of emergency operations; aka IMS. Managing Fire Officer- description from the IAFF Officer Development Handbook for the tasks and expectations for FO II. This FO book FO II is referred to a captain. Captain has complex role as a supervisor and manager. State police powers- Authority of each state to govern matters related to the welfare and safety of the residents. Decision making- the process of identifying problems and opportunities and resolving them. Responses: Firefighting accounts for only 4% of the responses. EMS 64% Some FD, EMS accounts for >80% of responses. Activated fire protection system alarms are the second most common reason for responses. Investigating an odor, a hazardous condition, or other service call is the third most common reason for FD responses. Flashover and structural collapse are the primary causes of noncardiac death within a burning structure. 37 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 Collective bargaining- the process in which working people, through their union, negotiate contracts with their employers to determine their terms of employment. Four federal laws regulate the collective bargaining system: Norris-LaGuardia Act of 1932 Wagner-Connery Act of 1935 Taft-Hartley Labor Act of 1947 Landrum-griffin Act of 1959 Yellow dog contracts- pledges that employers required workers to sign indicating that they would not join a union. Such contracts were declared unenforceable by the Norris-LaGuardia Act of 1932. 38 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 CHAPTER 10 APPLICATIONS OF LEADERSHIP (p. 272-283) FO II- wider sphere of influence. Should function as a transformational instead of a transactional leader by applying concepts of just culture. Just culture- a change in focus from errors and outcomes to the behavioral choices made by subordinates. Transformational leadership- is a process in which a person engages with others and creates a connection that raises the level of motivation and morality in both the leader and the follower. Assesses motives, satisfying follower’s needs, and treating them as human beings. Can build follower commitment in four ways: Idealized influence- lead by example. ▪ ▪ ▪ Inspirational motivation- leaders use inspirational motivation to build emotional commitments. Intellectual stimulation- leaders foster a climate that favors critical examination. Individualized consideration- leaders listens to each follower’s needs and concerns. Transactional leadership- is a relationship where all parties are in it for themselves, and they do things for each other with the expectation of reciprocation. Linear and analog style of transactional relationship that has its roots in the treatment of factory workers at the start of the Industrial Revolution. Goal setting- is the process of establishing of specific goals over a designated period. Goals should be described in the S-M-A-R-T format: Specific- describing the who-what-where-how-when and conditions. Measurable Attainable Relevant Timeline Activity log- an informal record maintained by the fire officer that lists FF activities by date and includes a brief description. Used to provide documentation for annual evaluations and special recognitions. 39 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 T-account -documentation system like an accounting balance sheet listing credits and debits, in which a single-sheet form is used to list the employee’s assets on the left side and liabilities on the right side so that result resembles the letter “T.” Human error- is an inadvertent action such as a slip, lapse, or mistake. Ex. Oversleeping and arriving late to work. At-risk behavior- is a behavioral choice that increases risk when risk is not recognized or mistakenly believed to be justified. Members recognized the risk and decided to continue the behavior. At-risk or reckless behavior is classified using the “reasonable person” standard. Reasonable person standard- the actions that a similar person with the same background would take given the same situation. Conscious disregard of a substantial and unjustified risk requires negative reinforcement to discourage future reckless behaviors: Remedial training Formal discipline Punitive action Work improvement plan- written document that is part of a special evaluation period. Plan identifies performance deficiencies and lists the improvements in performance or changes in behavior required to obtain a “satisfactory” evaluation. 40 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 Special evaluation period- designated period when an employee is provided additional training to resolve a work performance/behavioral issue. At its end, am evaluation is issued. Progressive negative discipline- process for dealing with job-related behavior that does not meet expected and communicated performance standards. Level of discipline increases from mild-to-more-severe punishments if the problem is not corrected. ▪ ▪ Counsel, verbal reprimand, written reprimand, suspension, and termination. Formal written reprimand- an official negative supervisory action at the lowest level of the progressive discipline process. Starts the formal paper trail of a progressive disciplinary process. ▪ Loudermill hearing- a pre disciplinary conference that occurs before a suspension, demotion, or involuntary termination is issued. U.S. Supreme Court indicated that a pretermination hearing where the employee can present their case is essential to protecting their due process. ▪ Suspension- negative disciplinary action that removes the FF from work location. Comes from BC or higher. Permanent. ▪ Termination- situation in which the organization ends an individual’s employment against their will. ▪ Involuntary transfer or detail- an alternative disciplinary action in which the FF is transferred or assigned to a less desirable or different work location. ▪ Demotion- a reduction in rank, with a corresponding reduction in pay. 7 Evaluation errors: 1. Leniency or severity- An evaluation error in which the FO evaluates the FF either higher or lower than their actual work performance. i. Reduces conflict 2. Personal bias-an evaluation error that occurs when the evaluator’s perspective skews that evaluation such that the classified job knowledge, skills, and abilities are not appropriately evaluated. i. Most likely to be referenced when an employee files hostile workplace or discrimination charges. 3. Recency- An evaluation error in which the FF is evaluated only on incidents that occurred over the past few weeks rather than on the entire evaluation period. 4. Central tendency- the FF is rated in the middle of the range for all dimensions of work performance. i. Holds little value for either FF or evaluation process. 41 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 5. Frame of reference- An evaluation error in which the FF is evaluate don the basis of the FO’s personal standards instead of the classified job description standards. 6. Halo and Horn effect- an evaluation error in which the FO takes one aspect of the FF’s job and applies it to all aspects of work performance. 7. Contrast effect- An evaluation error in which the FF is rated based on the performance of another FF and not on the classified job standards. Compensation and benefits- human resources system to identify and determine pay, leave, and fringe benefits for each position in the organization. 42 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 CHAPTER 14 MANAGING MAJOR INCIDENTS (p. 352-370) Base- the location at which the primary logistics functions are coordinated and administered. Branch- supervisory level established in either the operations or logistics function to provide an appropriate span of control. Branch Director- a person in a supervisory-level position in either operations or logistics function. Command staff- position consisting of IC, PIO, ISO, Liaison, and other positions as required. Accountability officer for us. Liaison- point of contact for assisting and coordinating agencies. Division- a supervisory level established to divide an incident into geographic areas of operations. Division supervisor- person in supervisory-level position responsible for a specific geographical area. Group- a supervisory level established to divide the incident into functional areas of operations. Sometimes groups are established with both functional and geographic designations. Ex. West wing SAR. Unit- is generic term that can be applied to either a geographic or functional component. The smallest organizational element within the IMS. More frequently used in large or complex incidents when many specialized groups must work together. Finance/administration- the section responsible for all costs. General staff- C-FLOP Logistics Section Chief- supervisory position responsible providing supplies, services, and facilities. Reports directly to the IC. Lobby control officer reports to this section chief. Logistics section- responsible for facilities, services, and materials. IAP- a verbal plan, written plan, or combination that is updated throughout the incident. Reflects overall strategy. 43 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 NIMS- a comprehensive guide to prevent, protect against, mitigate, respond to, and recover from incidents. Adoption and implementation of NIMS are required for eligibility for Stafford Act. The Stafford Act of 1974 (Amended in 2007 to include the below) is the administrative regulation that describes federal government disaster and emergency assistance to state and local governments, tribal nations, eligible private nonprofit organizations, and individuals affected by a declared natural disaster or emergency. Scope covers all hazards including terrorist events. National Response framework (NRF)- A comprehensive, national, all-hazards approach to provide federal resources in support of a major multijurisdictional incident. NFR rules the collection and allocation of federal and federal contractor resources to support the NIMS. Stairwell support group- a group of FFs who move equipment and water supply hose lines up and down the stairwells at a high-rise fire incident. The stairwell support unit leader reports to the support ranch director or logistics section chief. Staging- the standard procedure to manage uncommitted resources at the scene of the incident. Level I staging- predesignated units respond directly to the scene. Level II staging- used for greater alarm incidents. Responding units are directed to a stand-by location. Task force-includes 2-5 single resources assembled to accomplish a specific task. Strike team- consists of 5 units of the same type with an assigned leader. Commonly used in wildfires. 44 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 Mid-Rise Multifamily Dwellings- 3-7 story wood-frame construction with lightweight truss components in the floors and roof. 1st floor of type I (fire resistive) “podium” construction. 1st floor construction for retail or parking. Largest type of housing units recently constructed. 45 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 FIRE INCIDENT SAFETY OFFICER Chapter 1 The Safety Officer Role NFPA 1500: HSO requirements, duties, and responsibilities. NFPA 1561: ISO requirements, duties, and responsibilities. NFPA 1521: HSO and ISO qualifications for FD ISOs. NFPA 1026: ISO qualifications for National Incident Management System (NIMS) safety officers. ISO Responsibilities M= Monitor the incident environment and activities E= Evaluate hazard potentials D=Develop preventive measures I=Intervene when a threat exists C= Communicate urgent and advisory safety measures HSO- the individual assigned and authorized by the fire chief as the manager of the health and safety program. 46 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 ISO-a member of the command staff responsible for monitoring and assessing safety hazards or unsafe situations and for developing measures to ensure personnel safety. National Incident Management System (NIMS)-An incident response system developed by the Department of Homeland Security. PTSD- a mental health disorder that can develop in individuals who have experienced a terrifying ordeal. Williams-Steiger Act of 1970 created OSHA. NFPA 1501-Companion to NFPA 1500-addresses the authority, qualifications, and responsibilities of the safety officer. Changed to NFPA 1521 to standardize numbering Chapter 5 Reading Buildings Axially: an axial load is imposed through the centroid of another object. Eccentrically: an eccentric load is imposed off-center to another object. Torsionally: a torsional load is imposed in a manner that causes another object to twist A dead load refers to the weight of the building itself and anything attached to it. A live load refers to any force or weight, other than the building itself, that the building must carry or absorb. 47 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 The three types of forces are created when a material receives an imposed load: compression, tension, and shear. Compression: a force that causes a material to be crushed or flattened axially through the material. Tension: a force that causes a material to be stretched or pulled apart in line with the material. Shear: a force that causes a material to be torn in opposite directions perpendicular (at an angle of 90° to a given line, plane, or surface) or diagonal to the material. A material’s response to applied force depends on its load-bearing characteristics: ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Type of material (wood, steel, concrete) Shape of material (round, square, rectangle) Orientation of plane of the material (vertical or horizontal) Mass of material (surface-to-mass ratio, density, thickness) The mass or surface-to-mass ratio of a material directly affects its fire resistance. Mass is heat resistance and heat resistance is time. Materials classified as being brittle or ductile based on its reaction to imposed loads and resistance to forces. ✓ Brittle: materials that will fracture or fail as they are deformed or stressed past their design limits. ✓ Ductile: materials that will bend, deflect, or stretch-yet retain some strength-as force is resisted. Wood is ductile. 2 types of wood48 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 native (cut from a tree) develops surface char & tendency to alligator-check engineered consisting of many pieces of native wood, glued together to make a sheet. Steel is a mixture of carbon, iron ore, and alloys that are heated and rolled/extruded into structural shapes to form elements for a building. Steel is a ductile material. A steel column used for compression forces is based shaped as a square or a circle and is typically oriented vertically. A steel beam will be shaped as an “I” Cold-drawn steel, such as cables, bolts, rebar, and lightweight fasteners, loses 55% of its strength @ 800o F Extruded structural steel used for beams and columns loses 50% of its strength @ 1,100o F. Concrete is a mixture of Portland cement, sand, gravel, or other aggregate. The final strength of concrete depends on the ratio of these materialsespecially the ratio of water to Portland cement. Spalling refers to the crumbling and loss of concrete material to heat. Masonry is a common term that refers to brick, concrete block, and stone. Masonry is a form of load-bearing walls because of its composite strength, can also be used as a veneer. Veneer wall supports its own weight and is commonly used as a decorative finish. Masonry units (blocks, bricks, and stone) are held together using mortar. Composites refers to a combination of 4 basic materials, as well as various plastics, adhesives, and assembly materials. Columns is any structural element that transmits a compressive force axially through its center. Typically vertical, even though could be diagonal or even horizontal. A structural element that transfers loads perpendicularly to its imposed load is called a Beam. The top of the beam is subjected to compressive force while 49 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 the bottom of the beam is subjected to tension. The top of the “I” is known as the top chord; the bottom is known as the bottom chord. Types of beams: simple (supported at 2 points near its ends), continuous (supported in 3 or more places), cantilever (supported at only one end), girder (carries other beams), truss (series of triangles) & lintel o o o o (Beam that spans an opening in a load-bearing masonry wall). Purlin-a series of beams placed perpendicularly to other trusses or beams to help support roof decking. Raker-a diagonal brace that serves primarily as a column but must absorb some beam forces as well. Triangular truss is the most common truss form used to form a peaked roof. Parallel chord truss to top and bottom chords run in the same plane. Connections can be defined as a structural element used to attach other structural elements to one another. The connection is often “weak link” in structure fires. 3 types: pinned (nuts and bolts, screws, nails, rivets) rigid (elements bonded together) gravity (the load from an element is held by gravity alone. (“let”) Categorizing building types: NFPA 220 System (Despo System) 1. Type I Fire Resistive 2. Type II Noncombustible 3. Type III Ordinary 4. Type IV Heavy Timber 5. Type V Wood Frame o Type I: (Fire-resistive) ▪ Structural members are of approved noncombustible materials or limited combustible material with sufficient fire-resistive ratings to withstand the effects of fire and prevent its spread from floor to floor. Ex: high rises, megamalls, large stadiums. 50 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 o Type II: (Noncombustible/limited combustible) ▪ Structural elements do not qualify for Type I construction and are of an approved noncombustible or limited-combustible material with sufficient fire-resistive rating to withstand the effects of fire. Type II are made of steel. Steel is not required to have significant fire-resistive coatings. Therefore, they are susceptible to deformation. Ex: modern warehouses, small arenas. o Type III: Ordinary o By definition, load-bearing walls are noncombustible (masonry) and roof and floor assemblies made of wood. o Type IV: Heavy timber ▪ Constructed with wooden timbers of large-dimension lumber (>8” in thickness and width). ▪ Like Type III but with larger dimension lumber. ▪ “Mill construction” o Type V: Wood Frame “stick-built” ▪ All members are wooden or a similar material. Main concern: combustible material. o Other construction type (Hybrid Buildings) ▪ A hybrid building as a mix of multiple NFPA 220 construction types or one that does not fit into any of the 5 construction types. ▪ (ICF) Insulated Concrete Forming buildings use expanded polystyrene (ESP) to form concrete molds for walls. Three types of RSP: Grid lock-similar to a stack of Styrofoam Flat panel-flat-panel uses two parallel panels with a gap between them to form the concrete mold. Post and beam-reinforced concrete post and beam building. Building Eras (Vintage or Heritage) ▪ ▪ ▪ Founder’s Era 1700-WWI: o Lots of combustible voids. Wall collapse o Spreaders: decorative stars, diamonds, or “S” shapes used to distribute force over more bricks or blocks as part of an unseen corrective measure that exists inside the building. Industrial Era WWI-WWII: o Balloon frame prevalent- BF started in late 1850s Legacy Era WWII - ~1980: o Balloon framing replaced by platform framing in wood buildings. 51 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 ▪ Lightweight Era 1980s-present: o Performance-based codes Predicting collapse: “Identify-Analyze-Decide” method: o Step 1- classify building construction. (identification) o Step 2- Read smoke and flames. (identification) o Step 3- Visualize trace loads. (analytical) ▪ Connections, overloading, occupancy, trusses, & void spaces. o Step 4- Evaluate time. (analytical) o Step 5-Predict and communicate collapse potential. (decision) Emergency Evacuation-strict order for all crews to immediately escape from the building. Precautionary withdrawal-a directive for crews to exit a building interior or roof in an orderly manner. Chapter 6 Reading Smoke ▪ ▪ Smoke Definition: the products of incomplete combustion and pyrolytic decomposition that include an aggregate of particles, aerosols, and fire gases that are toxic, flammable, and volatile. Aggregates: Particulates (solids) high surface-to-mass ratio, Aerosols (suspended or propelled liquids), & Gases carbon- monoxide (CO), hydrogen cyanide (HCN), & hydrogen sulfide (H2S). 52 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 ▪ Our gas meter reads-(H2S) hydrogen sulfide, (O2) oxygen, (LEL) lower explosive level, & (CO) carbon monoxide. Atmospheric Levels: 1. O2: 23% 2. Flammability: > 10% of the LEL (the lowest concentration of a gas or vapor that will burn in air. The Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) varies from gas to gas, but for most flammable gases it is less than 5% by volume). 3. Toxicity: any numerical value 4. Carbon Monoxide (CO) ▪ OSHA max safe CO level-35 PPM over 8-hour in workplace. ▪ EPA max safe CO 9 PPM over 8-hours inside home. Smoke develops from 2 sources: ▪ Incomplete combustion-material contributing smoke through incomplete combustion are on fire, but rapid oxidation hasn’t fully reduced the fuel. ▪ Pyrolytic Decomposition- materials contributing smoke through pyrolytic decomposition aren’t necessarily burning but are being chemically degraded by heat. ▪ Pyrolysis-the chemical breakdown of compounds into their substances by heat alone. Smoke leaving a building has 4 attributes: ▪ Volume: ▪ Velocity: An indicator of pressure that has built up in the building. “Smoke movement” The faster it moves the more heat it has. ▪ Density: Density tells you how bad the fire is. ▪ Color: Smoke color tells the stage of heating and points to the location of the fire in a building. o Brown smoke- unfinished wood gives off a distinctive brown smoke as it approaches mid-to-late-stage heating (just prior to turning black or flaming). o Brown smoke from structural spaces indicates that unfinished wood is being heated and is decomposing-a warning sign in lightweight wood buildings. o Black fire is a slang term that officers use for smoke that is high-volume, has turbulent velocity, is ultra-dense, and deep black. VVDC at its worse. Backdraft- is an explosive event that occurs when air is suddenly reintroduced into a closed space filled with pressurized, ignition-temperature, and oxygen deprived products of combustion and pyrolysis. Thermal balance-term for heat collecting at the ceiling and cool air flowing to the fire below. 53 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 Three steps to reading smoke: 1. View the smoke VVDC 2. Analyze the factors contributing to VVDC. Refine/confirm your read. 3. Determine the rate of change. ▪ As a rule, consider an intervention if the smoke is getting faster/thicker/darker (velocity/volume/color) in seconds while interior operations are underway. Fire Growth Phases Comparison (Old school/Fuel-controlled vs. Contemporary/Compartmentalized fires). Fuel-controlled: 4-phases 1. 2. 3. 4. Ignition Growth Fully developed Decay Compartmentalized Fire Growth: 6-phases Influenced by 5 factors: 1. 2. 3. 4. Size of individual compartments. Fire load Presence or absence of Fire protection Systems. Flow paths-avenues that heat, smoke, flames, and combustion air follow. ▪ Flow paths divided: o “Air track”-intake combustion air moving toward the fire. o “exhaust”-heat, smoke, and flames moving away from the fire. 5. Size of exterior openings. 6-Phases of Compartmentalized Fire Growth: 1. Ignition (incipient) phase: the start 2. Initial growth phase: (fuel-controlled phase) 3. Ventilation-limited phase: a compartmentalized fire condition whereby open flaming decreases because smoke production displaces and limits available combustion air. ▪ Introduction of air will cause fire to rapidly transition into explosive growth phase. 4. Explosive growth phase- a rapid fire growth phenomenon that occurs when combustion air is reintroduced into a ventilation-controlled fire leading to flame-overs and (single) room flashovers. A combination of both. 54 CAPTAIN’S STUDY GUIDE 2024 ▪ Flame-over: hostile fire event that includes the ignition and sustained burning of the overhead smoke layer within a room or hallway. ▪ Flashover- a sudden hostile fire even that occurs when all the surfaces and contents of a space reach their ignition temperature nearly simultaneously. Distinct from explosive growth phase as it typically involves a single room. 5. Fully developed phase- Event that leads to total flame involvement 6. Decay phase- Available fuels become consumed and the fire wanes. (Fuel-limited phase). Hostile Fire Events: Fire behavior phenomena that can suddenly harm firefighters 1. Flashover: A sudden hostile fire event that occurs when all the surfaces and contents of a space reach their ignition temperature nearly simultaneously, resulting in full room involvement. Typically, a single room event. 2. Backdraft: An explosive event that occurs when air is suddenly reintroduced into a closed space that is filled with pressurized, ignition-temperature, and oxygen-deprived products of combustion and pyrolysis. 3. Smoke explosion: A hostile event that occurs when a spark or flame is introduced into a pocket of smoke that is below ignition temperature but above some aggregate flashpoint. The result is a split-second ignition and rapid expansion of that pocket with no sustained burning. 4. Flame-over: A hostile fire event that includes the ignition and sustained burning of the overhead smoke layer within a room and/or hallway. 5. Ghosting: is a hostile fire event sign characterized by intermittent ignition of small pockets of smoke, usually seen as fingers of flame that dance through the upper smoke layer. Previously “rollover” 55