Heriot Watt University: Interventions: Reading Difficulties in the Classroom PDF

C99CL – Cognition across the Lifespan Interventions: Reading Difficulties in the Classroom C99CL - Week 02 So far Week 1​ Lecture 1 = course overview/handbook​ Lecture 2 = memory recap/ development throughout the primary years​ So far Sensory memory stores sensory information (in sensory...

C99CL – Cognition across the Lifespan Interventions: Reading Difficulties in the Classroom C99CL - Week 02 So far Week 1​ Lecture 1 = course overview/handbook​ Lecture 2 = memory recap/ development throughout the primary years​ So far Sensory memory stores sensory information (in sensory memory registers). Sensory memory is very brief. Sensory memory does not show developmental trends after school age. It is PASSIVE and not under our control.​ Working memory codes information phonetically (phonological loop) and visuo- spatially (visuo-spatial sketchpad). Developmental trends. It is ACTIVE and under our control.​ Long term memory codes information in semantic form (i.e., for meaning). Good retrieval from LTM requires effective coding via WM to begin with. But shows developmental trends (in line with WM development) and strategies can be used to improve encoding (WM) and retrieval (LTM).​ Implications for approaches to learning and education?​ Reading Difficulties  An important role for developmental psychology is in education. Developing interventions for children who are not meeting basic education stages. Interventions Psychology can help by understanding what underpins literacy and numeracy. What core cognitive skills are missing when a child struggles with reading, writing and numbers? Some children struggle to read Understanding the underlying cognitive problem could Help develop interventions Help identify / predict poor readers Fight stigma for children struggling to read Difficulties with Sound Categorization  Poor readers often exhibit: [a] Insensitivity to rhyme = inability to recognize ‘shape’ of sounds [b] Insensitivity to alliteration = inability to recognize Sound constituent elements with sounds categorization Psychologists can start by exploring young children’s ability to categorize sounds Longitudinal studies Intervention studies Key Study: Bradley & Bryant (1983) Categorizing sounds and learning to read: A causal connection Bradley & Bryant (1983) Longitudinal study 368 children aged 4-5 T1-T4 over 3 years T1 → word recall, verbal IQ, sound categorization T2 – T3 → IQ, Reading, Spelling Sound Categorization at T1 Neale Reading Test (NARA) NARA = Neale Analysis of Reading Ability Developed by Marie Naele includes a series of graded passages that increase in difficulty. These passages cover various aspects of reading, including word recognition, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. – E.g. The rabbit eats __________ One-on-one administration NARA provides information about the student's reading age, reading accuracy (correct words read), reading rate (speed of reading), and comprehension skills. Schonell Spelling Test  Findings Longitudinal Study Children’s ability to categorize sound before they can read accounts for a significant amount of variance in reading and spelling 3 years later Particularly good predictor for 4- year-old But, causal effect? Intervention Study Select 65 low-scoring (@ T1) children Divide into 4 Groups 40 individual training sessions over 2 years G1 Sound categorization training (pictures highlighting commonality of first, middle and last sounds) G2 Sound categorization training + letter- identification training (which letter makes the ‘t’ sound?) G3 Conceptual categorization training (e.g., hen, bat = animals) G4 No training (control)  Sound categorization = important predictor of problems with reading and spelling later on Sound categorization can be improved; focus efforts on training: Findings Draw attention to which sounds in common: Intervention hill pig pin (first sound in common) study cot pot hat (middle sound in common) pin win sit (last sound in common) + letter-identification training (which letter makes the ‘t’ sound?) Difficulties with memory From categorising sounds to learning new words From categorising sounds to learning new words Being able to categorize sounds is not enough for successful reading We also have to be able to learn (remember) new words, and their meanings (LTM) To remember words by meaning in LTM, they have to have been processed effectively first in working memory (specifically, the phonological loop) Phonological Loop a component of model of working memory phonological loop is responsible for the temporary storage and processing of auditory and verbal information plays a crucial role in tasks that involve speech-based information, such as reading, listening comprehension, and speaking especially important for tasks that involve the manipulation and processing of language, such as learning new vocabulary, following complex instructions, and solving problems that require verbal reasoning also has implications for reading and writing skills, as individuals with stronger phonological loop abilities tend to have better phonological awareness (the ability to recognize and manipulate individual sounds in words), which is a crucial skill for learning to read and spell  Phonological Loop holds on to the beginning of a word/sentence while the rest is entering WM/being processed Baddeley & Hitch, 1974 Word Recall Number of words recalled develops with age, at the same time as working memory also increases 300% increase in words recalled between ages 4 and 11 (Hulme et al. 1984) Why? Children become linguistically able, and words are rehearsed faster Key Study: Gathercole & Baddeley (1993) Phonological Working Memory: A Critical Building Block for Reading Development and Vocabulary Acquisition? Variability in WM in young children If WM varies, and reading ability varies, maybe the two are linked? Gathercole & Baddeley (1993): Which components of WM are deficient in language-impaired children? Gathercole & Baddeley (1993) Group 1 Children 6-10 years old Below average on: vocab, reading, comprehension Group 2 Age-matched control – same age/non-verbal IQ Group 3 Language-matched control – same verbal skill but 2 years younger TASK: Non-word repetition task (non-reading task) Hear and repeat non-words (e.g., blonterstaping) varying in length (no. of syllables) Requires rehearsal of earlier syllables in WM (phonological loop) while later syllables are processed Findings Group 1 = 52% correct overall Groups 2 & 3 = 84% overall Small differences on 1-2 syllable words But differences marked on 3-4 syllable words  Conclusions Phonological working memory (remembering and repeating long words) is linked to language impairment; - language impaired children have a shorter phonological loop This is not due to differences in age: younger children performed better than language impaired children, thus WM problems delays language development (by up to 4 years; Gathercole et al., 1992) This is not due to differences in IQ either; children with same non-verbal IQ performed better than language impaired children on the task So tests of WM (in this case phonological loop) discriminate on verbal, developmental, measures Key Study: Gathercole et al. (1992) ? How? What’s the mechanism at issue? Child hears long word (‘meta-mor-pho-sis’): Stage 1: process sounds (phonemes) Stage 2: retain 1st 2nd syll. while processing 3rd 4th syll. Stage 3: retrieve memory traces from WM when repeating word Stage 4: Word enters LTM  String of syllables Memory Stores Working make up complete word: word enters Rapid loss of information LTM and is stored unless rehearsed – use memory by meaning WM (esp. for multiple- syllable words) Short- Long-term External Sensory term memory stimuli Memory memory New – unfamiliar - word Problems in working memory Can we use this finding to address reading problems? Q. Does phonological WM (before children know how to read) predict reading development? – (i.e., can it predict reading scores years later just as the ability to categorize sounds can?) – See if performance on non-word repetition task @age 4 also predicts reading scores @age8 Gathercole et al. (1992) Primary Reading Test (PRT) Select an option to complete sentence (written), e.g.:‘He opened his ___ to shout’ (asleep chest mouth pocket ears) Results: Controlling for age, non-verbal IQ & vocabulary @age 4 Association between N-W repetition and PRT : p <.05 Phonological Loop: Improving Capacity Non-word repetition task (non-reading task) Practice repeating non-words (e.g., meta-mor-pho-sis) varying in length (no. of syllables) Point out that task requires rehearsal of earlier syllables (in phonological loop of WM) while later syllables are being read This way, can ‘stretch’ the capacity of the phonological loop If learning a passage of text, focus on learning the beginning of each sentence (or paragraph) (rather than the whole sentence). The beginning acts as a cue to the rest of the sentence, thus freeing WM capacity. Homework and Revision Week 01 Learning Outcomes Check your learning What problems do children with poor reading skills have with categorising sounds? How did Bradley and Bryant (1983) test this? In their longitudinal study, what relationship was found between sound categorisation, and spelling and reading? What did their training study reveal about sound categorisation training? According to Gathercole & Baddeley (1993), which components of WM are affected in language-impaired children? How did they test this? According to Gathercole et al. (1992), what is the relationship between phonological WM and reading development? How did they test this? How could you develop tests for sound categorisation and WM, and what interventions could you develop for children with difficulties in either? Further Resources Optional reading and viewing suggestions Articles Bryant, P.E, MacLean, M., Bradley, L.L., & Crossland, J. (1990). Rhyme and Alliteration, Phoneme Detection, and Learning to Read. Developmental Psychology, Vol 26 (3), p429-438. Gathercole, Susan E., Willis, Catherine S., Emslie…. Baddeley, Alan D (1992). Phonological memory and vocabulary development during the early school years: A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, Vol 28(5), p887-898. On Canvas. Other Readings Ancient Theories of the Soul – https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ancient-soul/ Irwin, W. (Ed.). (2002). The matrix and philosophy: Welcome to the desert of the real. Open Court.