Building Construction 1 PDF

Preparation for Construction Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & Equipment Major Parts of a Building Foundation Bed Site Investigation Excavation & Earthworking...

Preparation for Construction Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & Equipment Major Parts of a Building Foundation Bed Site Investigation Excavation & Earthworking BUILDING CONSTRUCTION Slope Protection and Retaining Structures Pavements l PREPARATION FOR CONSTRUCTION  Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building 1.1 1. PREPARATION FOR CONSTRUCTION Laying the Batterboards 1.1 STAKING-OUT THE BUILDING Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & Equipment Before staking-out, it is advisable to go through the process of Major Parts of a Building relocating the point of boundaries and property line of the site where Foundation Bed the building is to be constructed. Staking-out is the driving of Site Investigation stakes for batter boards to locate the corners and foundations of Soil mechanics a building for excavation. Excavation & Earthworking Site Drainage Slope Protection and 1. Measure the required setback from the front corner monuments. Retaining Structures Drive two stakes and stretch a string between them to represent the Pavements front building line. 2. Measure the required side setback from one of the side lot lines along the front building line. Drive stake A which will represent the first corner of the building. From Stake A, measure the width of the building and mark with stake B to obtain the other front corner. 3. Estimate right angles from stakes A and B and measure the length of the building. In those two points, drive two temporary stakes C and D which will mark the rear corners of the building. C-D should be equal to A-B. 4. Draw lines along the diagonals A-D and B-C and ensure that these are equal. 5. Transfer the building lines to batter boards. Stakes – are wooden sticks used as posts sharpened at one end driven into the ground to serve as boundaries or supports of the batter boards. Strings – are either plastic cords or galvanized wires strung across batter boards and used to indicate the outline of the building wall and foundation.  Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building 1.2 LAYING THE BATTERBOARDS Laying the Batterboards 1.2 BATTER BOARDS Formwork & Shoring horizontal boards Construction Tools & establishes height of the footing trenches Equipment and foundations Major Parts of a Building establishes height of finish floor levels Foundation Bed Site Investigation LEVELING Soil mechanics done with a line level or carpenter’s level, Excavation & Earthworking Site Drainage or with a transit Slope Protection and height of the batter boards may be level Retaining Structures with or a little higher that the top of the Pavements finished foundation. Batter Boards – wood sticks or boards nailed horizontally at the stake which serve as the horizontal plane where the reference point of the building measurements are established.  Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards 1.2 Formwork & Shoring Notes: Construction Tools & Equipment Major Parts of a Building Spirit Level – an instrument or tool capable Foundation Bed Site Investigation of vertical and horizontal line Soil mechanics check. Excavation & Earthworking Site Drainage Slope Protection and Plumb Bob – a weight attached to a string, Retaining Structures used for vertical line check. Pavements Plastic Hose Filled With Water – a method of leveling horizontally batter boards without transit. 3-4-5 Multiples With the Use of Steel PLUMB BOB Tape Measure – a manual method of squaring the corners of building lines in staking.  Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building 1.3 FORMWORK AND SHORING Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring 1.3 Formwork - used to shape and support fresh concrete until cured and Construction Tools & able to support itself. Equipment Major Parts of a Building Shoring - temporary supports designed to carry forms for beams and slabs. Foundation Bed Site Investigation FORMS FOR CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. Soil mechanics Materials used for form construction are: Excavation & Earthworking Site Drainage Slope Protection and 1. LUMBER FORMS Retaining Structures should only be partially seasoned. Pavements 2. PLYWOOD FORMS. used where a smooth surface is required should be waterproof, Grade “A” and at least ½” thick. 3. STEEL FORMS may be in the form of pans for concrete joist construction or steel decking or corrugated steel for concrete slabs and slab-and-joist construction. 4. FIBER BOARDS 5. PHENOLIC BOARDS Phenolic resin or phenol-formaldehyde resin – is a thermosetting, waterproof, low-cost, mold-resistant, high strength synthetic resin made from phenol and formaldehyde; has good resistance to aging; used extensively in the manufacture of adhesives, exterior and marine plywood, laminated products, and molded articles.  Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards TWO MAJOR MATERIALS USED FOR FORMS AND SHORING Formwork & Shoring 1.3 CONSTRUCTION ARE: (1) LUMBER AND (2) STEEL. Construction Tools & Equipment Major Parts of a Building 1.3.1 Lumber Forms and Shoring Foundation Bed Site Investigation Soil mechanics partially seasoned and to some extent crude oil and petroline are used to Excavation & Earthworking prevent concrete from adhering to the wood Site Drainage slightly wet in order to prevent swelling and Slope Protection and distortion of the forms; and preserve the forms against damage by Retaining Structures alternate wetting and drying; on forms Pavements dressed at least one side and both edges against surfaces which are to be plastered, even for non-exposed surfaces; wetting with water will be sufficient since oiling prevents adhesion of the plaster; joints in forms for columns, beams, and girders made tight by dressing the lumber wire ties or bolts and rods are used to true to edge, forming square or butt joints; hold wall forms together; rods are preferred tight joints in floor and wall panels obtained and should be arranged that upon removal by using tongue-and grooved stock; of the forms, no metal shall be within one inch of any surface; wire ties should be sizes of lumber used are: 2-in.stock for used only on light and unimportant work columns, beams and girder bottoms; 1-in. where discoloring will not be stock for floor panels and beam and girder objectionable; sides; 2x4s for struts, posts, shores, and uprights; 1 or 2-inch stock for cleats; plywood forms used where a smooth surface is required; should be waterproof, Grade “A” and at least ½” thick.  Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards PLYWOOD FORMS Formwork & Shoring 1.3 Construction Tools & Equipment Knee Major Parts of a Building Foundation Bed Brace Site Investigation Ledger Soil mechanics Kicker Metal or Excavation & Earthworking Blocking Stringers Wood Joists Site Drainage Jack Slope Protection and Retaining Structures Pavements Adjustable Metal Shores Braced T- and L-heads Bracing Single Post Wood Shore WOOD SHORING METAL SHORING Sills  Preparation for Construction 1.0 COLUMN FORMS Staking-Out the Building WOOD FORMWORKS Laying the Batterboards Reusable forms may have a Formwork & Shoring 1.3 Construction Tools & square or rectangular cross Equipment section Major Parts of a Building Foundation Bed YOKES are clamping devices Site Investigation Soil mechanics for keeping column forms and Excavation & Earthworking tops of wall forms from Site Drainage spreading under the fluid Slope Protection and pressure of newly placed Retaining Structures Pavements concrete WALL FORMS SPREADERS usually of wood, space and keep the wall or forms apart FORM TIES PLYWOOD SHEATHING HORIZONTAL WALERS WOOD STUDS SILL PLATE BRACING  Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards FORM TIES Formwork & Shoring 1.3 Construction Tools & Equipment SNAP TIES have notches or crimps that Major Parts of a Building allow their ends to be snapped off below the Foundation Bed concrete surface after stripping off the forms Site Investigation Soil mechanics Excavation & Earthworking small, truncated cones of wood, steel or Site Drainage Slope Protection and plastic attached to form ties to space and Retaining Structures spread wall forms, leave a neatly finished Pavements depression in the concrete surface to be filled or left exposed SHE BOLTS consist of waler rods that are inserted through the form and threaded onto the ends of an inner rod. After stripping, the waler rods are removed for reuse while the inner rod remains in the concrete a variety of wedges and slotted devices tighten the formwork and transfer the force in a form tie to the walers  Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards 1.3.2 Steel Forms and Shoring Formwork & Shoring 1.3 Construction Tools & Equipment Shoring is also used to support scaffolding works. Scaffolds are Major Parts of a Building Foundation Bed temporary platforms designed to support workers and materials on the Site Investigation face of a structure and to provide access to work areas above the Soil mechanics Excavation & Earthworking ground. Any elevated platform is called a scaffold. Site Drainage Slope Protection and Retaining Structures Pavements The major components of metal shoring are: a) The ledger or the horizontal brace b) The brace or the diagonal. This component may be of the adjustable and the fixed type. c) The standard or the vertical component. d) Accessories: heads, jacks and bases.  Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring 1.3 SHORING COMPONENTS Construction Tools & Equipment Major Parts of a Building Standards Foundation Bed Site Investigation Soil mechanics Excavation & Earthworking Site Drainage Slope Protection and Retaining Structures Pavements Ledgers Adjustable Braces Fixed Braces  Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards SHORING COMPONENTS Formwork & Shoring 1.3 Construction Tools & Equipment Rapidshor Heads Adjustable Jacks Major Parts of a Building Foundation Bed Site Investigation Soil mechanics Excavation & Earthworking Site Drainage Slope Protection and Retaining Structures Pavements Base & Tilt Base  Preparation for Construction 1.0 SHORING ASSEMBLY INSTRUCTIONS Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring 1.3 Construction Tools & Equipment Major Parts of a Building Foundation Bed Site Investigation 1. Ensure the ground and sleepers are 2. Assemble tower of 4 standards 3. Loosely fit the remaining Soil mechanics adequately prepared, and the base, jacks and ledgers. Fix braces to stabilize. components until majority of first Excavation & Earthworking and standards are in correct positions. level complete. Check standards for Site Drainage verticality and tighten ledgers. Slope Protection and Retaining Structures Pavements 4. Position scaffold boards and ladders. 5. Additional ledgers and braces 6. Once all levels are complete, can now be added, with additional jacks and heads can now be braces. positioned. 7. Jack head levels finalized and any jack 8. Primary beams can be 9. Secondary beams can be bracing required is now fitted. positioned, clamped and levels positioned and clamped to primary checked. beams, plywood decking to follow.  Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building 1.4 CONSTRUCTION TOOLS & EQUIPMENT Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & Equipment 1.4 Tools and equipment employed in construction are grouped into four: Major Parts of a Building Foundation Bed Site Investigation Soil mechanics 1. Hand Tools are the tools that use power Excavation & Earthworking Site Drainage delivered by man only. Slope Protection and Retaining Structures Pavements 2. Power Tools are those that employ power supplied by forces other than that coming from humans. 3. Equipment is a term that refers to large, complex tools and machines that is designed to do a particular job. 4. Heavy Equipment is equipment which is very large and very powerful.  Preparation for Construction 1.0 1. Hand Tools c. Framing square is Staking-Out the Building a layout tool that is Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring A pry bar is used used to measure 90- Construction Tools & degree angles at the Equipment 1.4 to force open Major Parts of a Building boards used in corners of framework Foundation Bed and joints. They can Site Investigation forming concrete. Soil mechanics also be employed to Excavation & Earthworking Measurement and determine cutting Site Drainage Slope Protection and layout tools are the angles on dimension Retaining Structures following: lumber. Pavements a. Folding rule d. Level is a long, and tape measure straight tool that are the most contains one or more common tools for vials of liquid and measuring boards, used to determine if pipe, wire, etc. the horizontal or vertical is exact. b. Digital rule is used to measure e. Chalk line or chalk relatively long box is used for distances such as marking lines. those in highway construction.  Preparation for Construction 1.0 Types of hammers are the Staking-Out the Building following: Types of screwdrivers are: Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & a. Claw hammer is an a. Standard screwdriver has Equipment 1.4 Major Parts of a Building ordinary hammer used to a flat tip and is designed to fit a Foundation Bed drive or remove nails. standard slotted screw. Site Investigation Soil mechanics Excavation & Earthworking Site Drainage Slope Protection and Retaining Structures Pavements b. Phillips screwdriver has an X-shaped tip and is used to turn Phillips-head screws only. b. Sledgehammer is a heavy hammer used to drive stakes into the ground and to break up concrete and stone. c. Spiral ratchet screwdriver is that which relies on a pushing force rather than a twisting force.  Preparation for Construction 1.0 Types of handsaws are the Staking-Out the Building following: Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & a. Ripsaw has chisel-like Equipment 1.4 Major Parts of a Building teeth designed for ripping or Foundation Bed cutting with the grain of Site Investigation Soil mechanics wood. Excavation & Earthworking Site Drainage c. Backsaw is a special Slope Protection and type of handsaw that has a Retaining Structures very thin blade and makes Pavements very straight cuts such as those on trims and mouldings. b. Crosscut saw is used to cut across the grain of wood. d. Hacksaw is used to cut metals.  Preparation for Construction 1.0 Types of Chisels: b. Pipe wrench is Staking-Out the Building used to turn round Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring a. Wood chisel is used to trim objects like pipes. Construction Tools & wood and clear away excess Equipment 1.4 Major Parts of a Building material from wood joints. Foundation Bed Site Investigation Soil mechanics Excavation & Earthworking c. Brick trowel is Site Drainage Slope Protection and used to place and Retaining Structures b. Cold chisel is used to trim trim mortar between Pavements metals. bricks or concrete blocks. d. Bull float is used to smoothen out the Types of specialized hand tools surface of wet are the following: concrete. a. Nail set is used to drive finishing nails below the surface of a wooden trim or molding. e. Blind riveter is used to fasten pieces of sheet metal together.  Preparation for Construction 1.0 2. Power Tools b. Table saw is used for Staking-Out the Building cutting large sheets of Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Power drill is used wood and wood Construction Tools & composites and consists Equipment 1.4 to drill holes in wood, Major Parts of a Building metal and concrete. of a blade mounted on an Foundation Bed electric motor beneath a Table saw. Site Investigation Power drill. Soil mechanics Power screwdriver table-like surface. Excavation & Earthworking Site Drainage or screwgun is used Slope Protection and to install and remove c. Portable circular saw Retaining Structures screws. is used for cutting Pavements materials that are difficult Types of power to cut with stationary Portable circular Power screwdriver. tools. saw. saws are the following: d. Power miter saw is a a. Radial arm saw is circular saw mounted used for crosscutting over a small table used wood and consists of to cut various angles in a motor-driven saw wood. Power miter saw. blade that is hung on an arm over a table. e. Saber saw is used to cut curves or holes in Radial arm saw. floors and roofs for pipes and has a small knife- shaped blade that moves up and down. Saber saw.  Preparation for Construction 1.0 Type of power Type of power nailers and Staking-Out the Building hammers are: Laying the Batterboards staplers are the Formwork & Shoring following: Construction Tools & a. Pneumatic Equipment 1.4 Major Parts of a Building hammer or a. Nailers or nail Foundation Bed jackhammer is Site Investigation guns fasten Pneumatic nailer Soil mechanics used to break materials together by Excavation & Earthworking up concrete or shooting nails into Site Drainage Slope Protection and asphalt paving. Pneumatic hammer. the building material. Retaining Structures Pavements b. Rotary hammer is like an electric b. Powder-actuated drill that operates with both rotating stud driver is a kind and reciprocating actions and is used of nailer that is to drill holes in concrete. powered by gunpowder and is used to drive long Powder-actuated pins into wood, steel stud driver. or concrete. c. Staplers are like nailers but are loaded with u- Rotary hammer. shaped staples instead of nails for fastening. Stapler.  Preparation for Construction 1.0 3. Equipment Types of surveying Staking-Out the Building equipment: Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Conveyor is an equipment which Construction Tools & a. Transit is an Equipment 1.4 moves materials other than fluids. Major Parts of a Building equipment used by Foundation Bed surveyors to Site Investigation Soil mechanics measure horizontal Excavation & Earthworking and vertical angles to Site Drainage Slope Protection and obtain land elevation. Transit. Retaining Structures Pavements b. Surveyor’s level is that which is used to determine an unidentified elevation from a known one. Surveyors level. Conveyors are used for transporting c. Construction materials unto large roofs. laser flashes a narrow, accurate beam of light to make a baseline for additional measurements and is used as a level or as an alignment tool. Construction laser.  Preparation for Construction 1.0 Types of pumps are: Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & Equipment 1.4 a. Water pump is used to pump Major Parts of a Building water out of holes in the ground Foundation Bed Site Investigation so that construction work can Soil mechanics commence. Excavation & Earthworking Site Drainage Slope Protection and Retaining Structures Pavements Concrete pump. b. Concrete pump is used to move concrete from the concrete mixer to the concrete form. Water pump.  Preparation for Construction 1.0 Concrete Mixer (Cement Mixer) Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards A machine that mixes concrete Formwork & Shoring ingredients by means of a rotating Construction Tools & Equipment 1.4 drum. Raw materials are introduced Major Parts of a Building into the mixing drum through its open Foundation Bed end and discharged by tilting the Site Investigation Soil mechanics mixing drum to allow the concrete to Excavation & Earthworking Site Drainage pour out. Slope Protection and Retaining Structures Pavements Types of welding machines are the b. Laser-powered welder is following: used to weld material by employing a laser to heat the a. Arc welding metal. machine is used to weld materials by melting portions of the metal. Weld made by a laser- Arc welding machine. powered welder.  Preparation for Construction 1.0 4. Heavy Equipment a. Crawler crane is a crane mounted Staking-Out the Building on metal treads so that it can move Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Bulldozer is a tractor with a pushing over rough terrain. Construction Tools & Equipment 1.4 blade which moves earth and clears Major Parts of a Building land of bushes and trees. Foundation Bed Site Investigation Soil mechanics Excavation & Earthworking Site Drainage Slope Protection and Retaining Structures Pavements Bulldozer. Cranes are b. Truck crane is mounted on a truck machines that frame so that it can be driven in the lift large and site. heavy materials. The c. Tower crane or climbing crane is types of used in the construction of tall building cranes are: because it has a built-in jack that raises the crane from floor to floor as the building is constructed. 640-foot crane.  Preparation for Construction 1.0 Excavator is a machine used for Staking-Out the Building digging or scooping earth from a Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring place and depositing it in another. Construction Tools & Equipment 1.4 Major Parts of a Building Types of excavators are: Foundation Bed Site Investigation Soil mechanics a. Backhoe is used for general Backhoe. Excavation & Earthworking digging which is usually mounted Site Drainage Slope Protection and on either a crawler or truck frame. Retaining Structures Pavements b. Trencher is a special kind which digs trenches or long, narrow ditches for pipelines or cables. c. Front-end loader is a large Trencher-excavator. shoveling machine that can scoop or deposit a large amount of material. Front-end loader.  Preparation for Construction 1.0 Highway construction equipment Staking-Out the Building are: Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & a. Scraper is a machine that loads, Equipment 1.4 Major Parts of a Building hauls and dumps soil over medium Foundation Bed to long distances. Site Investigation Scraper. Soil mechanics Excavation & Earthworking b. Grader is an earthworking Site Drainage Slope Protection and machine that grades or levels the Retaining Structures ground. Pavements c. Compactor or roller is a machine that compacts soil to prepare for road paving. Grader. d. Paver is a machine that places, spreads and finishes concrete or asphalt paving material. Compactor  Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building 1.5 MAJOR PARTS OF A BUILDING Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & The major parts of a building are: Equipment 1. Superstructure – the portion of the Major Parts of a Building 1.5 Foundation Bed building above the ground. Site Investigation Soil mechanics 2. Substructure – the habitable SUPERSTRUCTURE Excavation & Earthworking portion of the building found below Site Drainage the ground. Slope Protection and Retaining Structures 3. Foundation – the structural portion Pavements of the building that transfer the SUBSTRUCTURE buildings load into the soil. FOUNDATION The three types of substructures are: 1. Slab on Fill – slab which rests on ground and not suspended. 2. Crawl Space – in a building without BASEMENT a basement, an unfinished accessible space below the first CRAWL SPACE floor which is usually less than a full story height. SLAB ON FILL 3. Basement – the lower story of a building, either partly or entirely below grade.  Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards 1.6 FOUNDATION BED Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & Equipment The word “foundation” is applied to: Major Parts of a Building Foundation Bed 1.6 Site Investigation Soil mechanics Excavation & Earthworking 1. Construction below grade, such as footing Site Drainage Slope Protection and courses, basement walls, etc., forming the Retaining Structures lower section of a structure; Pavements 2. The natural material, the particular part of the earth’s surface on which the construction rests; 3. Special construction such as piling or piers used to transmit the loads of the building to firm substrata.  Preparation for Construction Staking-Out the Building Foundation bed - the natural material Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring on which the construction rests Construction Tools & Equipment Major Parts of a Building Foundation walls - that part of the CONCRETE Foundation Bed 1.6 building foundation which forms the FOUNDATION WALLS Site Investigation Soil mechanics permanent retaining wall of the Excavation & Earthworking structure below grade. Site Drainage Slope Protection and CONCRETE MASONRY Retaining Structures Foundation piers/columns – FOUNDATION WALLS Pavements piers/columns below grade, to distinguish them from similar construction above grade Grade Beam - that part of a foundation system which supports the exterior wall of the superstructure and bears directly on the column footing. Footing courses - lower portions of walls, piers or columns which are spread to provide a safe base FOOTING FOUNDATION WALL  Preparation for Construction 1.0 1.6.1 TYPES OF FOUNDATION BEDS Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Foundation beds may be classified as follows: Construction Tools & Equipment Major Parts of a Building Foundation Bed 1.6 Site Investigation 1. Rock (solid rock, bedrock or ledge). Undisturbed rock masses forming an Soil mechanics undisturbed part of the original rock-formation. Some examples of harder rocks Excavation & Earthworking Site Drainage are granite, slate, sandstone, and limestone which are all capable of carrying Slope Protection and the load of any ordinary structure. Examples of softer rocks are shale, shaley Retaining Structures slates and certain marley limestone and clay stones. Pavements 2. Decayed rock (rotten rock). Sand, clays and other materials resulting from the disintegration of rock masses, lacking the coherent qualities but occupying the space formerly occupied by the original rock. 3. Loose rock. Rock masses detached from the ledge of which they originally formed a part. 4. Gravel. Detached rock particles, generally water-worn, rounded and intermediate in size between sand particles and boulders. 5. Boulders. Detached rock masses larger than gravel, generally rounded and worn as a result of having been transported by water a considerable distance from the ledges of which they originally formed a part.  Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & 6. Sand. Non-coherent rock particles smaller than ¼” in maximum dimension. Equipment Major Parts of a Building 7. Clay. A plastic material resulting from the decomposition and hydration of feldspathic Foundation Bed 1.6 rocks, being hydrated silicate of alumina, generally mixed with powdered feldspar, quartz Site Investigation Soil mechanics and other materials. Excavation & Earthworking Site Drainage 8. Hard-pan. Any strong coherent mixture of clay or other cementing material with sand, Slope Protection and gravel and boulders. Retaining Structures Pavements 9. Silt. A finely divided earthy material deposited from running water. 10. Mud. Finely divided earthy material generally containing vegetable matter and deposited from still or slowly moving water. 11. Mould. Earthy material containing a large proportion of humus or vegetable matter. 12. Loam. Earthy material containing a proportion of vegetable matter. 13. Peat. Compressed and partially carbonized vegetable matter. 14. Filled Ground. All artificial fills and some natural fills are liable to a more or less uniform but continuous settlement or shrinkage due to the gradual consolidation of the material of which the fill is composed  Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards 1.6.2 ALLOWABLE LOADS ON FOUNDATION BEDS Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & Equipment Major Parts of a Building Thorough investigation is required before Foundation Bed 1.6 Site Investigation one can determine the allowable unit load on the Soil mechanics Excavation & Earthworking foundation bed. When material and conditions are Site Drainage uniform over the entire site of the building, a uniform Slope Protection and Retaining Structures unit load may be used. In cases when entirely different Pavements conditions exist under different portions of the same building, the unit load on the foundation bed must be reduced as much as possible so as to reduce the differences in settlements between the two sections of the building to a minimum.  Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building 1.7 SITE INVESTIGATION Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & Before any design is made, the architect is required to get as much Equipment valuable data about site excavation and building erection at the project Major Parts of a Building Foundation Bed site in order to determine the character of the materials which will be Site Investigation 1.7 Soil mechanics encountered at the level of a foundation bed. Excavation & Earthworking Site Drainage 1.7.1 METHODS OF Slope Protection and Retaining Structures EXPLORATION Pavements 1. Test pits. For shallow work, an open pit is the most suitable method since it calls for an actual inspection of the undisturbed material over a considerable area. 2. Test borings. For excavations that are carried no deeper than the proposed level, the underlying material may be investigated by test boring. Soil Boring Rig. SPT Sample. 1.7.2 LOADING TESTS Loading tests of the materials forming the foundation bed are made to assist in determining its safe bearing capacity.  Preparation for Construction 1.0 1.8 SOIL MECHANICS Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & 1.8.1 CLASSES OF SOIL Equipment Major Parts of a Building There are two broad classes of soil: Foundation Bed Site Investigation Soil mechanics 1.8 Excavation & Earthworking Site Drainage A. Course-grained soil – consist Slope Protection and Retaining Structures of relatively large particles, Pavements visible to the naked eyes. B. Fine-grained soil – consist of much smaller particles, such as silt and clay.  Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards 1.8.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL Formwork & Shoring SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYMBOL DESCRIPTION PRESUMPTIVE PERMEABILITY Construction Tools & BEARING AND Equipment CAPACITY DRAINAGE Major Parts of a Building Foundation Bed psf kPa Site Investigation Soil mechanics 1.8 Gravels Clean Gravels GW Well-graded gravel 10000 479 Excellent Excavation & Earthworking 6.4 – 76.2mm Site Drainage GP Poorly graded gravel 10000 479 Excellent Slope Protection and Gravels with GM Silty Gravel 5000 239 Poor Retaining Structures fines Pavements GC Clayey Gravel 4000 192 Poor Sands Clean SW Well-graded sand 7500 359 Excellent 0.05 – 6.4mm Sands SP Poorly graded sand 6000 287 Excellent Sands with SM Silty Sand 4000 192 Fair fines SC Clayey Sand 4000 192 Poor Silts LL>50§ ML Inorganic Silt 2000 96 Poor 0.002-0.05mm CL Inorganic Clay 2000 96 Impervious Clays LL