BSF Chapters 1-6.pdf

BSF chapter l Orient to Human Body Anatomy -structure of the 4 types of tissues body Connective tissue_ connects and supports Physiology-closely entwined part of the body; some transport and store...

BSF chapter l Orient to Human Body Anatomy -structure of the 4 types of tissues body Connective tissue_ connects and supports Physiology-closely entwined part of the body; some transport and store material, ex. Bone, cartilage, and adipose. with how it functions Epithelial tissue - covers or lines body Organ systems surfaces(ex.outer layer of skin the walls. Of capillaries, and kidney tubes Muscle - contracts to produce movement; ex: skeletal muscles Human body made up of 11 and heart Nerve tissue -generates and transmits systems impulses to regulate body function -Integumentary system: ex:brain and nerves consists of skin, hair, and nails -Skeletal system- Consists of -Urinary system- kidneys, ureters, urinary bones, cartilage, and ligaments. bladder, and urethra. -Muscular system- primarily -Nervous system- brain, spinal cord, nerves, skeletal muscles and sense organs. Lymphatic system- lymph Endocrine system- pituitary gland, adrenals, nodes, lymphatic vessels, pancreas, thyroid, parathyroids, and other lymph, thymus, spleen, and organs. -Circulatory system- heart, arteries, veins, tonsils. and capillaries. -Respiratory system- nose, -Digestive system- stomach, small, and pharnyx, larnyx, trachea, large intestines, esophagus, liver, mouth, and bronchi, and lungs. pancreas.  -Male reproductive system- testes, vas deferens, prostate, seminal vesicles, and CONTINUED....... penis. -Female reproductive system- ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina and breasts. -Proximal- closest to the point of Directional Terms origin -Superior- above -Midline -Inferior- below -Right -Left -Anterior(ventral)- toward the front -Medial- toward the of body midline -Posterior(dorsal)- toward the back -Lateral- away from the of body midline -Superficial- at or near body -Distal- farthest from surface the point origin -Deep- away from the body's surface Fast FACT -Anatomical postion- standing erect, arms at the sides, with face, palms, and feet facin forward. The terms RIGHT AND LEFT always refer to the PATIENTS right and left side.  Body Planes -Saggital: divides the body lengthwise into right and left sides. -Also called a midsagittal plane -Transverse Plane: divides the body into upper (superior) and lower (inferior) portions -also called a horizontal plane *KNOW Body -Frontal Plane- divides the body lengthwise into anterior and Regions posterior portions -also called a coronal plane Abdominal Regions and Quadrants Body Cavities -There are 9 abdominal regions -Right Hypochondriac region -Ventral cavity is at the front of -Epigastric region the body while dorsal cavity is at the -Left hypochondriac region rear of the body. -Right lumbar region -Umbilical region Abdominal Quadrants -Left lumbar region Right Upper quadrant Left Upper Quadrant -Right lilac region -Hypogastric Region Right lower quadrant Left Lower Quadrant -Left lilac region Homeostasis (constancy or balance) -Range of normal is called the set point or set point range -Body's main temperature should remain between 97 and 99 degrees. -Glucose levels should remain between 65 and 99 mg/dl The Body at WORK -Every organ system helps the body maintain homeostasis. -Nervous system- hypothalamus in the brain contains the body's "thermostat" -Cardiovascular system- Blood vessels constrict to conserve heat. Muscular system- The muscles contract to cause shivering, which generates heat Integumentary system- Sweat production stops and "goosebumps" form, which creates an insulating layer. Endocrine system- Thyroid hormone production increases metabolism which raises body temperature Digestive system- The metabolism of food and stored fat generates heat. Homeostatic Regulation 1. A receptor (receives info about a change) 2. Control center (receives and processes info from receptor) 3. Effector (responds to signals from control center by either opposing or enhancing) Negative feedback( when effector opposes stimulus (dropping a temp)/ and reverses the direction of change (cause temp to rise) Positive feedback (when effector reinforces the stimulus (contractions during CB which trigger the release of hormone oxytocin) and amplifies the direction of change (causing greater contractions and further release of oxytocin).  Chapter 2 (Chemistry of Life) Chemistry of Life -96 percent of the human body Almost 60 chemical elements are found in consists of just four elements: the body, but the purpose for every one is oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and unknown nitrogen. -Most is in the form of water Out of 92 elements, 24 are found in the human body. -Life depends on a precise balance between all of those chemicals. Major Elements (98.5 percent of body weight) Name Symbol Lesser Elements (o.8 percent of body's weight) Oxygen Name Symbol O Carbon Potassium K C Hydrogen Sodium Na H Nitrogen Chlorine Cl N Calcium Magnesium Mg Ca Phosphorus Iron Fe P pH scale pH less than 7 is acidic -acidity or alkalinity of a substance in pH of 7 is neutral terms if pH. pH scale ranges from 0 to 14 pH greater than 7 are basic pH of 1 is Gastric acid pH of 7.0 is pure water (0.9 -3.0) pH of blood 7.3-7.5 (NaOH) Sodium hydroxide is pH of 14  Organic compounds Carbohydrates -Commonly called sugars or starches, are the body's main energy source Polysaccharides -Glycogen: stored form of glucose Monosaccharides -when glucose levels are high(after eating), the liver -one sugar unit converts excess glucose into glycogen, which it stores. -Glucose: primary -when glucose levels drop (in between meals), the source of energy liver converts glycogen back into glucose and releases used by most body's it into the blood to keep blood glucose levels within cell. normal limits and provide cells. -muscles also store glycogen to meet their energy needs. ***Glycogen goes in glucose comes out -Starch: form in which plants store polysaccharides -foods high in starch; rice, potatoes, and corn -when consumed, digestive enzymes split the starch molecule, releasing glucose. Triglycerides Steroids -most abundant lipid -diverse group of lipids that fulfill a wide -also called fats variety of roles -cholesterol- most important steroid Proteins from other steroids that are made -most abundant, and most important, -high cholesterol levels have been organic compounds in the body. implicated in heart disease, it remains an -structure of every cell, depends on important component of the body proteins. the precursor for other steroids, -Keratin gives strength to nails, including the sex hormones (estrogen, hair, and skin surface. progesterone, and testosterone), bile -Collagen lends structure to the acids (that aid in fat digestion and bones, cartilage and teeth nutrient absorption), and cortisol -Antibodies defend the body against contributes to the formation of vitamin bacteria D -Enzymes(Protein)- act as catalyst is required for proper nerve function for crucial chemical reactions -Contractile proteins promote muscle Keratin, Collagen, Enzymes, contraction Hemoglobin and Hormones are -Hemoglobin (protein) carries oxygen proteins in the blood -Hormones (protein such as insulin serve as chemical messengers to cells throughout the body  Chapter 3 (Cells) Cells -Adult human body contains more than Plasma Membrane 100 trillion cells. About 3 billion of those -surrounding of the cell cells die and most replaced every minute -defining boundaries of the cell, -Cells are the simplest unit of all living plasma membrane regulates the matter. passage of substances into and -Orchestrate all of the processes that out of the cell. make life possible: respiration, movement, *Plasma membrane is the reproduction, digestion, and excretion. boundary of the cell Nucleus Cytoplasm and Organelles -central and most importanyt part of the cell -Cytoplasm is the gel-like -Nucleus is the cells control center substance that fills the space -microscopic structure contains all of a between the plasma cell's genetic info. membrane and the nucleus. -Most cells have only one nucleus. "little organs" or organelles Mature red blood cells are the only cells that dont contain a nucleus Golgi Apparatus -receives proteins from the ER and prepares and packages them for export to other part of the body.  Centrioles -Two centrioles lie perpendicular to each other just outside the nucleus. -plays a role in cell division Lysosomes -membranous vesicles that Mitochondria "powerhouses" form from pinched-off pieces -have two membranes : an outer membrane of the Golgi apparatus. and an inner membrane. -cleaning out the cell, allow the -cells that do a lot of work contain more cell to "reuse" amino acids mitochondria than cells doing less work. -Lysosomal enzymes can also be used to destroy bacteria (lysol) Cytoskeleton "cellular garbage disposals" is -supporting framework of the cell the nickname. -determines the shape of the cell -allows cell to move Flagella (singular flagellum) -only flagellum in humans is the tail Cilia *trap mucus of the sperm -are hair like processes along the surface of a cell  Chapter 5 (Tissues) There are trillions of cells in the human body, all those Its bottom surface adheres to cells can be categorized as belonging to one of four underlying connective tissue by means distinct groups of tissue. of the basement membrane. 1) Epithelial Tissue: also called epithelium · It is too thin to contain blood · is a continuous sheet of tightly packed cells. vessels; the connective tissue beneath · It covers the body’s surface, lines the body it supplies it with oxygen and nutrients. cavity and many organs, and forms certain Glandular Epithelium is another type glands. of epithelium. A gland is a collection of · key functions involve protection, absorption, epithelial cells that specialize in filtration, and secretion. secretion of a particular substance. · They join with tight junctions making it difficult for · Exocrine glands: secrete their some substances to pass between cells. **prevent products into ducts. Ex: sweat glands digestive juices and food particles from seeping into the · Endocrine glands: are often blood stream. ductless. Secrete hormones. Ex. · The top surface is usually exposed to the adrenal gland, pituitary, thyroid, and environment: skin or inside of mouth or internal body ovaries. cavity. Goblet cells: contain secretory vesicles that produce large quantities of mucus. Ex: respiratory, GI tract, and eye conjunctive 2. Connective Tissue: the most widespread and most o Cartilage: composed of cells called varied tissue of all. The purpose is to connect the chondrocytes. Has a rubbery flexible body together and support, bind, or protect organs. matrix. Contains no blood vessels. Ø There are 4 types of connective tissue: fibrous There are three types of cartilage: connective tissue, cartilage, bone, and hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage. blood. -Hyaline cartilage: the most common type. Forms much of the fetal skeleton o Fibrous Connective Tissue: an abundance of fiber (later develops into bone). characterized as loose of dense. -Elastic cartilage: provides flexible § Loose Connective Tissue: areolar, adipose and reticular support to external ear and epiglottis. · Areolar tissue: surrounds blood vessels, nerves, the -Fibrocartilage: strongest cartilage. esophagus, and the Forms the disc between the vertebrae trachea and in the knee joint. Resist · Adipose Tissue (fat tissue): acts as a storage depot compression and absorb shock. for excess food and **Cartilage disorders are the most helps insulate the common cause to knee pain. body to conserve o Bone: also called osseous tissue. body heat. Composed of bone cells called · Reticular Tissue: forms the framework of the spleen, osteocytes that are embedded in a lymph nodes, and matrix containing collagen fibers and bone marrow mineral salt crystals. § Dense Connective Tissue: tendons and ligaments o Blood: unique connective tissues · Tendons: muscle to bone. that exist as a fluid. Composed of · Ligaments: bone to bone various types of blood cells surrounded · have few blood vessels, therefore injuries to the by liquid matrix (plasma), blood tendons and transports cells and dissolved ligaments heal slowly. substances from one part of the body to another. 3. Nervous Tissue: has a high degree of excitability and conductivity- more so than other tissues. This allows it to communicate rapidly with other parts of the body. Found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. Nerve Tissues consist of two types of cells: neurons and neuroglia. 4.) Muscle Tissue: consist of elongated cells that contract in response to stimulation. The body contains three types of muscle tissues: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth. -Skeletal Muscle: consist of long, thin cells called muscle fibers. They are voluntary. Most are attached to bone. Makes body movement possible. Responsible for breathing, speech, control urination, and facial expression. - Cardiac Muscles: found ONLY in the heart. Is involuntary. Its contraction is not under voluntary control. -Smooth Muscle: Not under voluntary control. This muscle lines the walls of the organs found in the digestive, respiratory, and urinary tracts. Control the diameter of blood vessels, making it important in controlling blood pressure and flow. Tissue repair: repairs itself in one of two ways 1) Regeneration: when damaged tissue cells are replaced with the same type of cells, resulting in functional new tissue. Ex: cuts and scrapes heal by regeneration. 2) Fibrosis: when damaged tissue is replaced with scar tissue, composed mainly of collagen. Scar tissue binds the edges of the wound together, it doesn’t restore functionality. Severe cuts and burns heal through fibrosis. Muscle and bone tissue have a limited capacity to regenerate; injuries to these tissues heal by fibrosis, causing a loss of at least partial functionality. **The newly formed tissue is called granulation tissue. Membranes: thin sheets of tissue, fulfill many crucial functions in the body. Line the body cavities, cover body surfaces, and separates organs (or parts of organs) from each other. Some secrete lubricating fluids to reduce friction during movement, like when the heart beats or a joint bends. The two categories of membranes are epithelial membranes and connective tissue membranes. 1. Epithelial membranes: three types of epithelial **Serous membranes secrete membranes: mucous serous fluid, which helps membranes, cutaneous prevent friction as the heart membranes, and serous beats and the lungs expand. membranes. 1. Mucous membranes: line body surfaces that open directly to the body’s exterior. Secrete mucus which acts as a lubricant to help propel food through the digestive tract; in the respiratory tract it traps dust and bacteria. 2. Cutaneous membrane: the skin 3. Serous membrane: lines the body cavities. It is one continuous sheet: part of the membrane (parietal membrane) lines the cavity; then folds back and covers the organs. The visceral membrane is the part that covers the organ. There are three types of serous membranes: · Pleura: surrounds the lung and lines the thoracic cavity. · Pericardium: surrounds the heart. · Peritoneum: lines the abdominal cavity and covers the abdominal organs. 2. Connective Tissue Membranes: some joints are lined by membranes made of connective tissue. Synovial membranes are a type of connective tissue membrane that lines the space between bones; they secrete synovial fluid to prevent friction during movement. Chapter 6- Integumentary system -Skin is crucial for human the skin and its appendages (hair, nail, survival and skin glands) known as the -separates the internal from the integumentary system --deserve external environment, protects the close attention body from invasion by harmful Cutaneous membrane consists of 3 substances, and helps maintain layers: the epidermis, hypodermis, and homeostasis. the dermis. -sensory nerve receptors in the Epidermis-outermost layer it contains skin gather info about the outside no blood vessels. it obtains oxygen and world while its flexibility and nutrients by diffusion from the dermal ability to stretch permit freedom layer beneath it. of movement. Dermis- inner and deeper layer--is -changes in the skin can signal composed of connective tissue. Dermis diseases or disorders in other contains an abundance of blood vessels body systems in addition to sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and nerve endings. Hair follicles also embedded in the dermiss.  Beneath the skin is a layer of subcutaneous tissed called Fast Fact hypodemis. The average person sheds more than 1 -Adipose tissue, the hypodermis pound (0.5 kg) of skin every year. In binds the skin to the underlying fact, the outer layer of the epidermis is tissue. -This layer of fat helps insulate the completely replaced every month. body from outside temperature Thick skin doesnt contain any hair changes. follicles and is hairless. It covers the Skin Color palms and soles--areas that recieve a -Scattered throughout the lot of friction. basal layer of the epidermis are cells called melanocytes Abnormal Changes in Skin Color Cyanosis Blue tint A deficiency of oxygen circulating blood Jaundice Yellow discoloration of Impaired liver function that allow bile to skin and the white of eyes accumulate which stains skin Albinism Extremely pale skin, white hair, A genetic lack of and pink eyes melanin Erythema Abnormal redness Increase blood flow in dialated blood vessels close to the skin's surface Pallor Pale skin Decreased blood flow Bruise (hematoma) Bluish, black, or yellowish The breakdown of clotted blood mark on the skin under the skin  Barriers of the skin -Protection Fast Fact -Barrier -scientists have long known that vitamin D -Viatamin D production helps the body absorb calcium, which is -Sensory perception important un the formation and maintenance -Thermoregulation of bones. Vitamin D also plays a role in the function of the immune system. Deficiency of vitamin D increases the risk of infection; it is also associated with the development of Appendages of Skin several autoimmune disorders. Hair Everywhere on the body except for a few locations: palm and soles, lips, nipples, and some areas of genitals. -Eye lashes and eyebrows keep perspiration out of the eyes; hair in the nostrils filters dust out, hair on head is insulation against heat and cold. shaft is part of the hair that extends above the skins surface each hair lies within a sheath of epidermis called a hair follicle. Hair follicles have a rich nerve and blood supply. Buried in the dermis is the hair bulb or root. lowest part of hair and is where growth occurs. Hair Color and Texture Hair gets it color from melanin. 2 types of melanin (eumelanin and pheomelanin)  Hair Growth and Loss Excessive hair loss is called alopecia. may result from disease, poor nutrition, chemotherapy, or emotional distress. Some men exhibit male pattern baldness because of high testosterone which is why it occurs in men. Nails -Cuticle: A fold of skin that surrounds the nail body -Nail body: the visible part of the nail. The shape and color of nails -Lunula: crescent shaped white area at the base of can provide clues about the nail. underlying disorders. -Nail bed:layer of epithelium under nail. appears normally pink because of rich blood supply. -Nail root: proximal end of the nail; it's hidden underneath overlying tissue. Nails grow as new keratinized cells are added to the nail root from the nail matrix. As new cells are added fingernails grow Clubbing about 1/25 inch each week. Toenails grow slowly. Long-term oxygen deficiency, usually, as a result of lung disease (causes Cyanosis distal ends of fingers to enlarge, making it -Often the first sign of oxygen look like a drumstick when viewed from above) deficiency. nail bed softens causing nail to angle downwards, beaked appearance when viewed from side.  Glands associated with the skin include sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and ceruminous glands. Sweat Glands - most numerous of skin glands. -skin of adult contains 3 to 4 million sweat glands 2 types of sweat glands: eccrine glands and apocrine glands. Glands Sebaceous Glands -open into a hair follicle, secrete an oily substance called sebum. -Sebum helps keep the skin and hair from drying out and becoming brittle. When excess sebum accumulates in the gland ducts, pimples and blackheads can form. Ceruminous Glands -exists in the external ear canal, secrete a waxy substance called cerumen (ear wax). Keep the ear canal from drying out. excess cerumen can accumulate in the ear canal and harden, diminishing hearing.  Life Lesson: Burns Burns can be caused by fire, hot water, steam, electricity, chemicals, and sunlight. The skins crucial role in protecting against infection, controlling fluid loss, and thermoregulation, it's easy to understand the seriousness severe or extensive burns. Following a serious burn, a patient may lose as much as 75 percent of his circulating fluid volume in the first few hours, placing that person at risk for ciculatory collaspe and cardiac arrest. Snother complication of burns is the development of eschar the dead tissue resulting from a burn. Besides secreting toxins and promoting bacterial growth, eschar can restrict circulation. First Degree Burn Second Degree Burn Third Degree Burn Partial thickness burn Partial thickness burn (deep) Full thickness burn (superficial) -Involves the epidermis as Extends through the -involves only the epidermis well as part of the dermis epidermis and dermis and -often results from sunlight -Results in blisters, severe into the subcutaneous (sunburn) pain, and swelling layer -scarring -May not be painful initally because of the destruction of nerve endings. -often require skin grafts  Life Lesson: Skin Cancer Skin cancer is the most common cancer, results from changes in epidermal cells Barsal cell carcinoma -most common type Seldom metabolizes, least dangerous Squamous cell carcinoma -Arises in the epidermis and is slow growing -Often occurs on the scalp, forehead, backs of hands, and top of ears. Malignant melanoma -Most deadly of all skin cancers