BSEE 21 Midterm Topics PDF

Linguistics as the Science of Language  Linguistics It is a It can Linguistics is multifaceted Seeks to formulate the scientific discipline that understand general examines its nature,...

Linguistics as the Science of Language  Linguistics It is a It can Linguistics is multifaceted Seeks to formulate the scientific discipline that understand general examines its nature, rules and study of language from function, and language regulations various development in grammar and its perspectives. structure. Four Key Characteristics of Linguistics as a Science: 1.Empirical: Linguistics is based on observable data and evidence. Linguists collect and analyze language samples from various sources, including spoken conversations, written texts, and historical documents. 2.Systematic: Linguistic research follows scientific methods, including hypothesis formation, data collection, analysis, and theory development. 3. Objective: Linguists aim to describe language as it is actually used, without making value judgments about "correct" or "incorrect" usage. 4. Theoretical: Linguistics develops and tests theories about language structure, acquisition, and use.  LINGUISTICS MINOR BRANCHES MAJOR BRANCHES ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) MAJOR BRANCHES ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) 1.Phonetics: The study of speech sounds and their physical properties. o Example: Analyzing the differences in pronunciation of the "th" sound in English words like "thin" and "this." 2.Phonology: The study of sound patterns in languages and how they function. o Example: Examining how the plural "-s" in English is pronounced differently in "cats" [s], "dogs" [z], and "horses" [əz]. 3.Morphology: The study of word formation and structure. o Example: Analyzing how the word "unbreakable" is formed from the morphemes "un-", "break", and "-able." ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) MAJOR BRANCHES ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) 4. Syntax: The study of sentence structure and grammatical rules. o Example: Investigating why "The cat sat on the mat" is grammatical, but "Cat the mat on sat the" is not. 5. Semantics: The study of meaning in language. o Example: Exploring how the word "bank" can have different meanings in different contexts (financial institution vs. river bank). 6. Pragmatics: The study of language use in context and how context contributes to meaning. o Example: Understanding how the phrase "It's cold in here" might be a request to close a window rather than just a statement about temperature.  MINOR BRANCHES ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) 7. Historical Linguistics: The study of language change over time. o Example: Tracing the development of Modern English from Old English through Middle English. 8. Sociolinguistics: The study of language concerning social factors. o Example: Examining how factors like age, gender, and social class influence language use.  MINOR BRANCHES ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) 9. Psycholinguistics: The study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, and understand language. oExample: Investigating how children acquire their first language or how the brain processes language. 10. Computational Linguistics: The study of language from a computational perspective, often involving natural language processing and artificial intelligence. oExample: Developing algorithms for machine translation or speech recognition.  Importance of Linguistics ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) 1.Understanding Human Communication: Linguistics provides insights into how humans communicate and exchange ideas. 2.Language Teaching and Learning: Linguistic theories inform language pedagogy and second language acquisition strategies. 3.Cultural Preservation: Documenting and analyzing endangered languages helps preserve cultural heritage.  Importance of Linguistics ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) 4. Technology Development: Linguistic knowledge is crucial for developing language-related technologies like speech recognition and machine translation. 5. Cognitive Science: Linguistics contributes to our understanding of human cognition and brain function. 6. Social Understanding: Linguistic analysis can reveal social structures, power dynamics, and cultural values embedded in language use.  Famous Linguists/Theorists 1.Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913): "Language is a system of signs that express ideas." Implications: o Emphasizes the systematic nature of language o Introduces the concept of the linguistic sign (signifier and signified) o Lays the foundation for structural linguistics 2. Noam Chomsky (1928-present): "Language is a set of (finite or infinite) sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements." Implications: oHighlights the creative aspect of language use oSupports the idea of universal grammar oEmphasizes the rule-governed nature of language 1.Edward Sapir (1884-1939): "Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols." Implications: o Stresses the uniquely human nature of language o Recognizes language as a learned behaviour o Acknowledges the role of language in expressing not just ideas, but also emotions and desires 4. Leonard Bloomfield (1887-1949): "Language is the totality of utterances that can be made in a speech community." Implications: o Focuses on language as a social phenomenon o Emphasizes observable linguistic behavior o Aligns with the behaviorist approach to language study 5. Charles Hockett (1916-2000): "Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates." Implications: o Highlights the arbitrary nature of linguistic signs o Emphasizes the social function of language o Recognizes language as a tool for cooperation 6. Michael Halliday (1925-2018): "Language is a system for making meanings: a semantic system, with other systems for encoding the meanings it produces." Implications: o Focuses on the functional aspect of language o Emphasizes meaning-making as the primary purpose of language o Recognizes multiple levels of linguistic organization (semantic, grammatical, phonological) 7. Dell Hymes (1927-2009): "Language is a form of social action, embedded in culture and society." Implications: o Emphasizes the role of language in social interaction o Recognizes the cultural context of language use o Supports the development of the field of ethnography of speaking 8. Roman Jakobson (1896-1982): "Language is a system of systems, each of which has a different function in the total act of communication." Implications: oRecognizes the multifunctional nature of language oSupports a structural approach to language analysis oEmphasizes the communicative aspect of language 9. William Labov (1927-present): "Language is a form of social behavior that evolves and changes in response to social factors." Implications: o Highlights the dynamic nature of language o Emphasizes the influence of social factors on language change o Supports sociolinguistic approaches to language study 10. Steven Pinker (1954-present): "Language is a complex, specialized skill, which develops in the child spontaneously, without conscious effort or formal instruction." Implications: o Supports the idea of language as an innate capacity o Emphasizes the naturalness of language acquisition in children o Aligns with nativist theories of language development The Macro Skills of Language Plot Viewing The five macro skills of language Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing and Viewing - are Character the fundamental components of language proficiency.  Macro Skills Plot Receptive skills Productive skills Character listening Reading Viewing Speaking Writing 1. Listening Listening is the ability to accurately receive and interpret messages in the communication process. Key aspects: Comprehension of vocabulary, grammar, and context Understanding of accent, intonation, and pronunciation Ability to follow the flow of ideas and arguments Subskills: Discriminating between sounds Recognizing word boundaries Understanding reduced forms Processing speech at different rates Recognizing cohesive devices in spoken discourse Importance: Foundation for language acquisition Essential for effective communication Critical for academic and professional success Challenges: Dealing with background noise Understanding different accents and dialects Maintaining concentration over extended periods Strategies for improvement: Regular exposure to diverse listening materials Practice with authentic audio sources Focus on specific listening tasks (e.g., listening for gist, specific information) 2. Speaking Speaking is a productive skill that involves using speech to convey meaning to others. Key aspects: Pronunciation and intonation Fluency and coherence Vocabulary range and accuracy Grammatical accuracy Pragmatic competence Subskills: Producing individual sounds and sound patterns Using stress and intonation patterns Selecting appropriate words and sentences according to the context Organizing thoughts in a meaningful and logical sequence Using language as a means of expressing values and judgments Importance: Essential for personal and professional communication Crucial for expressing ideas, opinions, and emotions Key to building relationships and social interactions Challenges: Overcoming anxiety or fear of making mistakes Developing fluency and natural speech patterns Adapting to different speaking contexts (formal vs. informal) Strategies for improvement: Regular practice through conversations and discussions Recording and analyzing one's own speech Participating in language exchange programs or speaking clubs 3. Reading Reading is the ability to interpret written language and extract meaning from text. Key aspects: Decoding written symbols Comprehension of explicit and implicit meanings Critical analysis and evaluation of text Subskills: Skimming for general idea Scanning for specific information Inferring meaning from context Recognizing text organization and structure Understanding cohesion and coherence Importance: Access to information and knowledge Development of vocabulary and language structures Enhancement of critical thinking skills Challenges: Dealing with unfamiliar vocabulary Understanding complex sentence structures Interpreting cultural references and idiomatic expressions Strategies for improvement: Extensive reading of diverse materials Practicing different reading techniques (intensive, extensive, skimming, scanning) Using context clues to guess word meanings Communicative Competence by D. Hymes Communicative Competence: The Framework by D. Hymes Communicative competence, a term coined by Dell Hymes in the 1960s, is fundamental to language acquisition and teaching. It goes beyond just knowing the rules of grammar and vocabulary, encompassing the ability to use language appropriately and effectively in real-world situations. preencoded.png Communicative Competence: The Framework by D. Hymes Hymes' framework offers a comprehensive understanding of what it means to be a competent language user, considering various aspects of language use beyond simply grammatical correctness. preencoded.png  Defining Communicative Competence The Ability to Communicate Effectively Communicative competence is not merely about speaking or writing correctly; It's about understanding and being understood in a given social context. I It involves using language appropriately, adapting to different audiences, and conveying meaning effectively. This means understanding and responding to the social, cultural, and situational factors influencing communication. preencoded.png Defining Communicative Competence Beyond Grammar and Vocabulary While grammatical and lexical knowledge is important, communicative competence recognizes that successful communication requires more than just mastering linguistic rules. It encompasses pragmatic knowledge, sociolinguistic awareness, and the ability to navigate different discourse genres and situations. preencoded.png Hymes' Four Dimensions of Communicative Competence 1 Linguistic Competence 2 Sociolinguistic Competence This refers to the knowledge of the grammatical This involves understanding how language varies rules, vocabulary, and pronunciation of a according to social context, including factors like language. It encompasses the ability to produce social status, ethnicity, gender, and region. It's grammatically correct sentences and understand about using appropriate language for different the structure and meaning of language. situations and audiences. For example, choosing formal language in a professional setting or informal language with friends. 3 Discourse Competence 4 Strategic Competence This refers to the ability to create and understand This refers to the ability to use language creatively longer stretches of language, such as and effectively to compensate for gaps in conversations, speeches, and written texts. It knowledge or overcome communication involves knowing how to connect ideas, organize challenges. It encompasses strategies like information, and use language effectively to paraphrasing, code-switching, or using nonverbal achieve specific communicative goals. communication to clarify meaning and ensure smooth communication. preencoded.png Linguistic Competence Grammar Vocabulary Pronunciation Linguistic competence A strong vocabulary is Clear and accurate includes mastering the essential for effective pronunciation is crucial for grammatical rules of a communication. This intelligibility. Linguistic language, such as syntax, dimension involves having a competence includes the morphology, and phonology. broad range of words and ability to produce sounds This involves knowing how to phrases, understanding their correctly, understand the form grammatically correct meanings, and being able to nuances of intonation and sentences, understanding the use them appropriately in stress, and articulate words in different parts of speech, and different contexts. A wider a way that is easily applying rules of conjugation vocabulary allows for richer understood by others. and declension. and more precise communication. preencoded.png Sociolinguistic Competence Aspect Explanation Understanding the social setting, such as formal or informal, Social Context and adapting language accordingly. Being aware of the cultural norms and conventions of the Cultural Norms language being used, such as politeness markers, greetings, and appropriate topics of conversation. Regional Dialects Recognizing and adapting to different regional accents and dialects, understanding that language varies geographically. Social Status Adjusting language use based on the relative status of the speakers, such as using formal language when addressing someone in a position of authority. preencoded.png Discourse Competence Cohesion and Coherence Discourse competence involves connecting ideas logically and creating a coherent flow of communication. It involves using appropriate linking words, pronouns, and other cohesive devices to ensure that the text or conversation is understandable and flows smoothly. Turn-Taking In conversations, discourse competence involves knowing how to take turns effectively, listen attentively, and respond appropriately to others' contributions. This involves understanding nonverbal cues and social conventions to ensure that the conversation progresses smoothly and is respectful. Genre Awareness Different genres of discourse, such as academic writing, news articles, or personal letters, have specific conventions and expectations. Discourse competence involves understanding these conventions and adapting language and style accordingly. preencoded.png  Strategic Competence Problem-Solving This involves using language creatively to overcome communication challenges and find solutions to unexpected situations. It includes strategies like paraphrasing, rephrasing, or using nonverbal communication to clarify meaning when there are misunderstandings. Adaptability Strategic competence involves adjusting language use based on the audience, context, and purpose of the communication. It includes strategies like code-switching, using different registers of formality, and adapting to different accents or dialects. Monitoring and Evaluation It involves being aware of how your communication is being received and being able to adjust your strategy based on feedback. This includes strategies like asking for clarification, observing nonverbal cues, and adapting your communication style based on the reactions of your audience. preencoded.png Applying Communicative Competence in Language Learning Authentic Communication 1 Language learning should focus on real-world communication, engaging students in authentic 2 Contextualized Learning tasks that require them to use language in Learning should be embedded in context. meaningful ways. This could include activities like Learners should be exposed to language used in role-playing, simulations, and real-life projects that different social situations, cultural contexts, and mimic everyday language use. for various purposes. This helps them understand how language varies and how to use it appropriately. Interaction and Collaboration 3 Encouraging interaction and collaboration among learners creates opportunities for them Focus on Communication Skills to practice using language in real-world 4 settings. This can include activities like pair Language learning should emphasize the work, group discussions, and role-playing where development of all communication skills, learners can negotiate meaning, resolve including listening, speaking, reading, and conflicts, and learn from each other. writing. Learners should be given opportunities to practice all skills in authentic and meaningful contexts. preencoded.png Implications for Language Teaching and Assessment Teaching Methods Assessment Tools Learner Feedback Teaching methods should Assessment should reflect a Feedback should be focused focus on developing all comprehensive understanding on helping learners improve aspects of communicative of communicative their communicative competence, not just competence, going beyond competence. grammatical accuracy. traditional grammar and This includes This includes using the vocabulary tests. providing specific and following : This includes using following : constructive feedback on communicative tasks, authentic assessment tasks, their performance, providing opportunities role-playing, focusing on their strengths for interaction, and presentations, and and areas for improvement, incorporating real-world simulations, to evaluate guiding how to apply what contexts into language learners' ability to use they have learned in real- learning. language effectively in world settings. different situations. preencoded.png  The Ongoing Relevance of Communicative Competence Communicative competence remains a crucial concept in language learning and teaching. Its emphasis on: ✓ real-world communication; ✓contextualised learning, and ; ✓Developing various language skills ensures that learners are equipped to use language effectively. preencoded.png