BMNG6222 Business Management 2B 2024 Past Paper PDF

BMNG6222 BUSINESS MANAGEMENT 2B BMNG6222/d/p/w Material for Learning Unit 8 2024 This material enjoys copyright under the Berne Convention. In terms of the Copyright Act, no 98 of 1978, n...

BMNG6222 BUSINESS MANAGEMENT 2B BMNG6222/d/p/w Material for Learning Unit 8 2024 This material enjoys copyright under the Berne Convention. In terms of the Copyright Act, no 98 of 1978, no part of this manual may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any other information storage and retrieval system without permission in writing from the proprietor. The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd is registered with the Department of Higher Education and Training as a private higher education institution under the Higher Education Act, 1997 (reg. no. 2007/HE07/002). Company registration number: 1987/004754/07. © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 1 of 30  BMNG6222 Using this Guide This material has been developed to serve as your primary source of reference for Learning unit 8: Communication and Interpersonal Relations. Although there is no prescribed textbook for this learning unit, most of the work is sourced from the following material: Smit, P.J., Cronje, G.J. & Brevis, T. (2012). Management Principles: A Contemporary Edition for Africa. 5th ed. Cape Town: Juta. Erasmus, B.J., Strydom, J.W. & Rudansky-Kloppers, S. (2014). Introduction to Business Management. 9th ed. South Africa: Oxford University Press. Bateman, T.S. & Snell, S.A. (2015). Management: Leading & Collaborating in the Competitive World. 11th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. All the notes for this learning unit are given in this material but you are encouraged to study wider. Focus should be given to all pages in this material. Various activities and revision questions are included in this material. In order to prepare yourself effectively for assessments you should work through all the activities. These are designed to help you to engage with the subject matter as well as to help you prepare for your assessments. Furthermore, useful references are provided to assist you with developing a deeper understanding of the content. This material must be used in conjunction with all other resources provided on the learn platform. Content provided in this guide will be assessed, please refer to the Module Outline for more information regarding leaning units and assessments. You must use your prescribed textbook “Brevis, T. Vrba, M. (ed). 2021. Contemporary Management Principles. Cape Town: Juta” for ALL other learning units. © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 2 of 30  BMNG6222 Learning unit 8: Communication and Interpersonal Relations. My notes Learning Objectives: Discuss the communication process; Analyse the communication process in order to identify problems; Discuss the various aspects of organisational communication; Differentiate between formal and informal communication; Discuss the barriers to effective communication; Recommend ways in which managers can become better communicators; Discuss the impact of information technology on the communication process; Discuss interpersonal relationships in terms of conflict and negotiation. How to prepare for this learning unit: Before the first class, be sure that you read the entire chapter. As you read these sections, see if you can find the answers to the review questions. © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 3 of 30  BMNG6222 1 Introduction Bateman & Snell (2015:498) states that communication is the transmission of information and meaning from one party to another through the use of shared symbols. Robbins, DeCenzo & Coulter (2015:387) states that the importance of effective communication for managers cannot be Everything a manager does involves overemphasized for one specific reason: everything a manager communicating. does involves communicating. Not some things but everything. A manager can’t formulate strategy or make a decision without information. That information has to be communicated. Once a decision is made, communication must again take place. Otherwise, no one will know that a decision has been made. The best idea, the most creative suggestion, or the finest plan cannot Activity: Consider the take form without communication. Managers, therefore, need following: effective communication skills. We’re not suggesting that good communication skills alone make a successful manager, but that Who do you communicate communication is a vital skill that most managers need. We can with on a daily basis? say, however, that ineffective communication skills can lead to a What types of things do continuous stream of problems for a manager. you communicate to these individuals? 2 The Communication Process 2.1 How Does the Communication Process Work? Bateman & Snell (2015:498) state that the sender initiates the What are the possible process by conveying information to the receiver - the person for consequences of reporting whom the message is intended. The sender has a meaning he to a manager who has or she wishes to communicate and encodes the meaning into limited communication symbols (the words chosen for the message). skills? Then the sender transmits, or sends, the message through some When managers and other channel, such as a verbal or written medium. The receiver members of an organization are ineffective decodes the message (e.g., reads it) and attempts to interpret communicators, the sender’s meaning. organisational performance suffers and any competitive The receiver may provide feedback to the sender by encoding a advantage the organization message in response to the sender’s message. might have is likely to be lost. Moreover, poor communication sometimes The communication process often is hampered by noise, or can be downright interference in the system, which blocks perfect understanding. dangerous and even lead to tragic and unnecessary loss Note: Noise could be anything that interferes with accurate of human life. communication: ringing telephones, thoughts about other things, Source: Jones, GR., George, JM., (2015). Contemporary Management. or simple fatigue or stress. 8th Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 4 of 30  BMNG6222 A manager who is alert to potential problems can perform each step carefully to ensure more effective communication. Moreover, poor communication sometimes can be downright dangerous and even lead to tragic and unnecessary loss of human life. For example, researchers from Harvard University studied the causes of mistakes, such as a patient receiving the wrong medication, in two large hospitals in the Boston area. They discovered that some mistakes in hospitals occur because of communication problems - physicians not having the information they need to correctly order medications for their patients or nurses not having the information they need to correctly administer medications. The researchers concluded that some of the responsibility for these mistakes lies with hospital management, which has not taken active steps to improve communication. Communication problems in airplane cockpits and between flying crews and air traffic controllers are unfortunately all too common, sometimes with deadly consequences. In the late 1970s two jets collided in Tenerife (one of the Canary Islands) because of miscommunication between a pilot and the control tower, and 600 people were killed. The tower radioed to the pilot, “Clipper 1736 report clear of runway.” The pilot mistakenly interpreted this message to mean that he was cleared for take-off. Unfortunately, communication problems persist in the airline industry. In 2009 a Northwest Airlines Airbus A320 flew 150 miles past its Minneapolis destination while the crew of the airplane were out of contact with air traffic controllers for over an hour.’ (Jones, GR., George, JM., (2015). Contemporary Management. 8th Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill). Robbins et al (2015) is of the opinion that communication can be thought of as a process or flow. Communication problems occur when deviations or blockages disrupt that flow. Before communication can take place, a purpose, expressed as a message to be conveyed, is needed. It passes between a source (the sender) and a receiver. The message is encoded (converted to symbolic form) and is passed by way of some medium (channel) to the receiver, who retranslates (decodes) the message initiated by the sender. The result is communication, which is a transfer of understanding and meaning from one person to another. © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 5 of 30  BMNG6222 2.2 The Communication Process Note: Students must know the communication process in detail and must also be able to provide examples for each part. Figure 1: The Communication Process. Source: Robbins SP, & DeCenzo DA, Coulter, M, (2015:388). Fundamentals of Management. Essential Concepts and Applications. 9th ed. Prentice Hall. New Jersey. The communication model by Robbins et al (2015;389) has seven parts: (1) the communication source or sender, (2) encoding, (3) the message, (4) the channel, (5) decoding, (6) the receiver, and (7) feedback (Robbins, DeCenzo & Coulter. 9th Ed. 2015:387 – 388). Part 1 and 2. The source initiates a message by encoding a thought. Four conditions affect the encoded message: skill, attitudes, knowledge, and the social cultural system. Part 3. The message is the actual physical product from the source that conveys some purpose. When we speak, the words spoken are the message. When we write, the writing is the message. When we paint, the picture is the message. When we use gestures, the movements of our arms, and the expressions on our faces are the message. Our message is affected by the code or group of symbols we use to transfer meaning, the content of the message itself, and the decisions that we make in selecting and arranging both codes and content. © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 6 of 30  BMNG6222 Part 4. The channel is the medium through which the message travels. It’s selected by the source, who must determine whether to use a formal or an informal channel. Formal channels are established by the organisation and transmit messages that pertain to the job-related activities of members. Jones et al (2015:318) states that when relying on verbal communication, managers can choose from a variety of communication media, including face-to- face communication in person, written letters, memos, newsletters, phone conversations, e-mail, voice mail, faxes, and videoconferences. When choosing among these media, managers need to take into account the level of information richness required, time constraints, and the need for a paper or electronic trail. A primary concern in choosing an appropriate medium is the nature of the message. Is it personal, important, non-routine, and likely to be misunderstood and in need of further clarification? If it is, face-to-face communication is likely to be in order. They traditionally follow the authority network within the organisation. Other forms of messages, such as personal or social, follow the informal channels in the organisation. Robbins et al (2015:389) states that the grapevine is the unofficial way that communications take place in an organization. It’s neither authorized nor supported by the organization. Rather, information is spread by word of mouth - and even through electronic means. Ironically, good information passes among us rapidly, but bad information travels even faster. The grapevine gets information out to organizational members as quickly as possible. The biggest question raised about grapevines, however, focuses on the accuracy of the rumours. Research on this topic has found somewhat mixed results. In an organization characterized by openness, the grapevine may be extremely accurate. In an authoritative culture, the rumour mill may not be accurate. But even then, although the information flowing is inaccurate, it still contains some element of truth. Part 5 and 6. The receiver is the person to whom the message is directed. However, before the message can be received, the symbols in it must be translated into a form that can be understood by the receiver - the decoding of the message. Just as the encoder was limited by his or her skills, attitudes, knowledge, and social cultural her skills, attitudes, knowledge, and social cultural system, the receiver is equally restricted. © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 7 of 30  BMNG6222 Accordingly, the source must be skilful in writing or speaking; the receiver must be skilful in reading or listening, and both must be able to reason. A person’s knowledge, attitudes, and cultural background influence his or her ability to receive, just as they do the ability to send. Part 7. The final link in the communication process is a feedback loop. “If a communication source decodes the message that he encodes, if the message is put back into his system, we have feedback”. Feedback is the check on how successful we’ve been in transferring our messages as originally intended. It determines whether understanding has been achieved. Given the cultural diversity that exists in our workforce today, the importance of effective feedback to ensure proper communications cannot be overstated. 2.3 Areas in the Communication Process Activity: Where Problems May Occur Do you think that using the 2.3.1 Confusion in Communicating application WhatsApp to communicate with one Lack of mutuality is one of the most common causes of another can cause misunderstanding or failure of communication. In Bulgaria and confusion? some parts of India and East Africa, for example, ‘yes’ is indicated with a side-to-side shake of the head, ‘no’ is indicated with a nod. Visitors who do not share these symbols can quickly experience, or cause, bewilderment when they talk to citizens of these areas. Gestures, too, may be subject to different interpretations. Raising one’s eyebrows can have varying meanings, expressing surprise in one context and scepticism in mother (Smit, Cronje & Brevis, 2012:412). 2.3.2 Communication Pitfalls Errors can occur in all stages of the communication process. In the encoding stage, words can be misused, decimal points entered in the wrong places, facts left out, or ambiguous phrases inserted. In the transmission stage, a message may get lost on a cluttered desk, the words on the screen could be too small to read from the back of the room, or words might be spoken with ambiguous inflections. © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 8 of 30  BMNG6222 Decoding problems arise when the receiver doesn’t listen carefully or reads too quickly and overlooks a key point. And of course receivers can misinterpret the message: A reader draws the wrong conclusion from an unclear text message, a listener takes a general statement by the boss too personally, or a sideways glance is taken the wrong wav More generally, people’s perceptual and filtering processes create misinterpretations. Perception is the process of receiving and interpreting information. As you know, such processes are not perfectly objective. They are subjective because people’s self-interested motives and attitudes toward the sender and toward the message create biased interpretations. People often assume that others share their views and naturally pay more attention to their own views than to those of others. But perceptual differences get in the way of shared consensus. To remedy this situation, it helps to remember that others’ viewpoints are legitimate and to incorporate others’ perspectives into your interpretation of issues. Generally, adopting another person’s viewpoint is fundamental to working collaboratively. And your ability to take others’ perspectives - for instance, to really understand the viewpoints of customers or suppliers - can result in higher assessments of your performance. Filtering is the process of withholding, ignoring, or distorting Have you noticed that information. Senders do this, for example, when they tell the boss people generally only share what they think the boss wants to hear or give unwarranted positive information with compliments rather than honest criticism. Receivers also filter friends and family? They information; they may fail to recognize an important message or tend to ignore the negative attend to some aspects of the message but not others. information. Mixed signals and misperception. A common thread underlying the discussion so far is that people’s perceptions can undermine attempts to communicate. People do not pay attention to everything going on around them. They inadvertently send mixed signals that can undermine the intended messages. Different people attend to different things, and people interpret the same thing in different ways. All of this creates problems in communication. If the communication is between people from different cultures, these problems are magnified. Communication breakdowns often occur when business transactions take place between people from different countries. © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 9 of 30  BMNG6222 Consider how many problems can be avoided—and how much more effective communication can be—if people take the time to (1) ensure that the receivers attend to the message they are sending, (2) consider the other party’s frame of reference and attempt to convey the message with that viewpoint in mind, (3) take concrete steps to minimize perceptual errors and improper signals in both sending and receiving, and (4) send consistent messages. You should make an effort to predict people’s interpretations of your messages and think in terms of how they could misinterpret your messages. It helps to say not only what you mean but also what you don’t mean. Every time you say “I am not saying X, I am saying Y,” you eliminate a possible misinterpretation (Bateman & Snell, 2015:499–500). 3 Various Aspects of Organisational Communication Managerial communication occurs in three forms, namely intra- personal, interpersonal, and organisational communication. In intra-personal communication, managers receive, process, and transmit information to themselves. In interpersonal Organisational communication, messages are transmitted directly between two communication flows in four or more people, on a person-to-person basis. In organisational directions: downwards, up- communication, information is transferred between organisations wards, horizontally, and or between different units or departments in the same laterally. Please make sure organisation. At an airport, for instance, air-traffic controllers that you are able to provide examples for each have to communicate with pilots from different airlines to direct direction. the landing and take-off of aeroplanes. They also have to communicate with the Weather Bureau to identify dangerous weather conditions. Different departments at an airport also have to communicate with one other. The ground personnel at the airport have to communicate with the air-traffic controllers to find out about possible flight delays. They also have to communicate with the information desk to inform them of these delays. Activity: Effective communication can give an organisation a competitive edge. Organisations in which communication systems are The General Manager of an organisation wants to effective are likely to be more successful than those in which they communicate a new policy are not. The question now arises: what differentiates an effective to the marketing communication system from an ineffective one? department Draw a diagram depicting the flow through the chain of command © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 10 of 30  BMNG6222 3.1 Organisational Communication Networks There are two primary organisational communication networks: the formal communication network and the informal communication network. The formal network is communication that follows the hierarchical structure of the organisation, or the ‘chain of command’. It follows the formal, established, official lines of contact. In other words, it follows the prescribed path of the hierarchical chart and tends to be explicit in terms of ‘who should be talking to whom about what’. The informal network involves communication that does not follow the hierarchical path or chain of command. It tells you ‘who is really talking to whom and about what’. Informal communication refers to links that have grown out of relationships between employees and management and that have little or no correlation with the formal organisational chart. The informal network is very strong in most organisations; it usually works much faster than the formal network. A manager needs to be aware of both networks. Management has more control over the formal network than the informal, while employees have more control over the informal network than management does (Smit, Cronje & Brevis, 2012:411 - 416). 3.2 Formal and Informal Communication 3.2.1 Formal Communication Organisational communication flows in four directions: downwards, upwards, horizontally, and laterally. These basic communication flows are shown in Figure 8.1 Downward communication starts with top management and flows down through the management levels to workers. The major purpose of downward communication is to provide subordinates with information on organisational goals, strategies, and policies. Downward communication is likely to be filtered, modified, or halted at each level as managers decide what should be passed down to employees. © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 11 of 30  BMNG6222 Figure 5.1: The flow of communication (Source: Smit, Cronje & Brevis, 2012:414). Top management at Mittal Steel, the South African steel organisation, decided to re-engineer and restructure the organisation to become more cost effective. In doing this they decided to outsource all activities that did not form part of its core business, namely the production of steel. This meant that the legal services, information technology, and management training departments, among others, were outsourced. This decision was communicated to the heads of these departments who, in turn, communicated the outsourcing decision further down the line to their subordinates. Delegation is a downward communication process. Managers have to communicate with subordinates to explain exactly what is expected of them. This communication process is time consuming and managers are often reluctant to become involved in it. Delegation – and many other processes in the organisation – depends on open communication in order to be effective. When employees send a message to their superiors, they are using upward communication. The main function of upward communication is to supply information to the upper levels about what is happening at the lower levels. Horizontal communication occurs between people on the same level of the hierarchy and is designed to ensure or improve coordination of the work effort. It is formal communication but does not follow the chain of command. © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 12 of 30  BMNG6222 When the head of marketing discusses the appointment of a new salesperson with the head of human resources, horizontal communication takes place. When the production manager at a mine discusses the maintenance schedule with the maintenance manager, communication is taking place at a horizontal level Horizontal communication has the basic task of coordination within departments as well as between different departments. Effective horizontal communication should prevent tunnel vision in the organisation – the idea that a particular department is the only important one in the organisation. Meetings play a decisive role in promoting effective horizontal communication, provided that the right people attend them. When the marketing department meets to discuss the possibility of a new product, managers from the research and development, finance, purchasing, and operations departments also need to attend to ensure that the manufacture of the new product is feasible. Lateral communication takes place between people at different levels of the hierarchy and is usually designed to provide information, coordination, or assistance to either or both parties. When the head of human resources explains the Labour Relations Act to a supervisor in a plant, the normal authority path is not followed. However, communication occurs with the knowledge, approval, and encouragement of managers who understand that lateral communication may help relieve their communication burden and also reduce inaccuracy by putting A question of ethics. relevant people in direct contact with one another (Smit, Cronje 60% percent. That’s the & Brevis, 2012:411 - 416). percentage of respondents in an employee survey who 3.2.2 Informal Communication said that gossip was their biggest pet peeve about Communication in an organisation sanctioned by management. their jobs Although office gossip can benefit Commonly called ‘the grapevine’, information can begin with individuals and anyone in the organisation and can flow in any direction. organisations, it often consists of hearsay, half- The grapevine’s prime function is to disseminate information to truths, and innuendo. It employees (both managerial and non-managerial) that is also can absorb large relevant to their needs. The grapevine derives its existence from amounts of employees’ employees’ social and personal interests, rather than from formal time. organisational requirements. Source: Robbins SP, & DeCenzo DA, Coulter, M, (2015:388). Fundamentals of Management. It should be made clear that rumour and the grapevine are not Essential Concepts and Applications. the same. Rumours are information without a factual base and 9th ed. Prentice Hall. New Jersey. may just as easily be communicated via formal as informal channels of communication. © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 13 of 30  BMNG6222 Whether they view it as an asset or a liability, managers must understand the grapevine. Since it is always present, speedy, and largely accurate, managers should use it as another means of transmitting information. They should learn who is likely to spread information and ‘feed’ these individuals selected messages (Smit, Cronje & Brevis, 2012:411 - 416). An interesting comment by Robbins et al (105:390) on the grapevine: One of the most famous studies of the grapevine was by Keith Davis who investigated the communication patterns among 67 managerial personnel. The approach he used was to learn from each communication recipient how he or she first received a given piece of information and then trace it back to its source. It was found that while the grapevine was an important source of information, only 10 percent of the executives acted as liaison individuals (that is, passed the information on to more than one other person). For example, when one executive decided to resign to enter the insurance business, 81 percent of the executives knew about it, but only 11 percent transmitted this information to others. At the time, this study was interesting both because of what it found, but more importantly because of what it showed about how the communication network worked. Recent research by IBM and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology using a similar type of analysis focused more on people’s social networks of contacts at work rather than on how information flowed through the organisational grapevine. However, what was noticeably interesting about this study was that it found that employees who have strong communication ties with their managers tend to bring in more money than those who steer clear of the boss. What managers can learn from both these studies is that it’s important to understand the social and communication networks that employees use as they do their work. Know who the key contact points are so that if you ever need to find out or relay information, you know who to go to. 4 Barriers to Effective Communication According to Robbins et al (2015:391) a number of interpersonal and intrapersonal barriers affect why the message decoded by a receiver is often different from what the sender intended. They summarised the more prominent barriers to effective communication as shown in table 8.1 below: © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 14 of 30  BMNG6222 Communication issues. And the survey says… 25% of employees say they withhold feedback on routine problems to avoid wasting their time. 47% of Wi-Fi users say they can wait one hour or less before getting “antsy” about checking e-mail, instant messaging, and social networking sites. 64 seconds is how long it takes to retrieve your train of thought after an e-mail interruption. 69% of executives say Table 5.1: Barriers to Effective Communication they’re sending out Source: Robbins SP, & DeCenzo DA, Coulter, M, (2015). Fundamentals of more messages than Management. Essential Concepts and Applications. 9th ed. Prentice Hall. ever to employees. New Jersey. p. 391 37% of employees say they’re receiving more According to Smit, Cronje and Brevis (2012:416-421) barriers messages from common to a typical organisation are shown in Figure 5.1 below. executives. They may be placed in four categories, namely intra-personal, 54% of employees say their organisation interpersonal, structural, and technological factors. prohibits employees from visiting social networking sites while at work. 42% of employees who have received employer-provided wire-less devices feel they are expected to always be available. 28% of a day is how much the average worker loses to interruptions. Figure 5.2: Barriers to effective communication Source: Robbins SP, & DeCenzo DA, Source: (Smit, Cronje & Brevis, 2012:417). Coulter, M, (2015:399). Funda- mentals of Management. Essential Concepts and Applications. 9th ed. Prentice Hall. New Jersey. © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 15 of 30  BMNG6222 4.1 Intra-Personal Factors According to Smit, Cronje & Brevis. 5th Ed. 2012:416 – 412, perception can be defined as the process in which individuals arrange and interpret sensory impressions in order to make sense of their environment. Differing perceptions are one of the most common communication barriers. These differences could be the result of different backgrounds, values, experience, and so on. In South Africa, managers need to be sensitive to the fact that the same word in different languages may mean different things to different ethnic groups. Not only do we have 11 official languages in South Africa, but these languages also have dialects. To make this situation even more complex, perceptual differences can also arise because of varying social and gender perspectives. People tend to see and hear only what they are emotionally prepared (or want) to see and hear. Furthermore, people tend to seek out and select favourable messages and ignore unpleasant ones. In other words, they reject or inaccurately perceive information that is inconsistent with their expectations. This phenomenon is known as selective perception, and it may be a barrier to effective communication. People differ in their ability to develop and apply basic communication skills. Some people are incapable of expressing themselves orally but are able to write clear and concise messages. Others are effective speakers but poor listeners. In addition, many read slowly and find it difficult to understand what they have read. English is the official language in many South African organisations; however, less than ten per cent of South Africans speak English as their first home language. 4.2 Interpersonal Factors The relationship between superior and subordinate is often based on the way each treats the other and how this reciprocal behaviour is interpreted. As superior and subordinate interact, the feelings that arise either limit or encourage the content and frequency of their communications, and the method of their communication. The combination of these elements forms the climate of an interpersonal relationship. Trust between sender and receiver also plays a major role in the effectiveness of organisational communication. Honesty and openness are prerequisites for effective communication. © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 16 of 30  BMNG6222 Distrust between a superior and subordinate can serve only to increase defensiveness and decrease the frequency of open expression and the likelihood of effective communication. Honesty, competence, enthusiasm, and objectivity give credibility to a source. When deciding to restructure an organisation, top management should communicate with employees and explain the reasons why they have decided to go this route. Subordinates will regard the reasons as credible only if they perceive top managers as knowledgeable leaders. The accuracy of communication between two communicators is directly related to how similar they perceive themselves to be. Communicators who perceive themselves as being similar are generally more willing to accept each other’s viewpoints and to express agreement. Difficulties may arise when subordinates of one religion, ethnic group, gender, or even region are supervised by superiors of a different religion, ethnic group, and so on. (Smit, Cronje & Brevis. 5th Ed. 2012:416 – 412) 4.3 Structural Factors A person’s status in an organisation depends largely on the prestige associated with the position he or she occupies. Differences in status are signified by job titles, imposing offices, the allocation of a parking bay, and so on. The influence of status on the direction and frequency of communication has been the subject of many studies. Evidence indicates the following: People generally prefer to communicate with individuals of higher status; People of higher status generally communicate more with one another than they do with people of lower status; The wider the difference in status is, the greater is the likelihood that information will flow from people of higher to lower status than the other way around; In conversations, people with high status generally dominate; People with low status often attempt to gain the favour of those with higher status by displaying respect, offering praise, and agreeing with their views. Spatial constraints refer to physical distances between workers. In general, the shorter the physical distance between two individuals, the more frequently they will interact. (Smit, Cronje & Brevis. 5th Ed. 2012:416 – 412). © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 17 of 30  BMNG6222 4.4 Technological Factors Technological changes have influenced organisational communication in recent years. For example, in decision making we have moved from a meeting run according to parliamentary procedures to the use of a quantitative tool such as simulation. In exchanging messages over long distances, we have moved from messengers to telegraph, to telephone, to voice mail, and e-mail. Technological changes have an impact on the effectiveness of the communication media as well as the amount of information available. However, it is important to remember that the introduction of new technologies does not replace the use of older ones. The use of electronic mail has not made face- to-face meetings redundant. For this reason, we have included language, meaning, and non-verbal cues under technological factors. There are a variety of networked communication applications. o E-mail is the instantaneous transmission of messages on linked computers. It’s fast, cheap, efficient and convenient. It allows messages to be read at the reader’s convenience, and print if needed. On the down side, e-mail is slow and cumbersome. o Some organization members use instant messaging (IM), interactive, real-time communication among computer users who are logged on to the computer network at the same time. It’s instantaneous communication, without having to wait for colleagues to read email. But users must be logged on at the same time and there are potential network and data security breaches. o A voicemail system digitizes a spoken message, transmits it over the network, and stores the message for the receiver to retrieve later. This capability allows information to be transmitted even though a receiver may not be physically present to take the information. Receivers can save, delete, or route the message to other parties. A downside to voicemail is no immediate feedback for the caller. o Fax machines transmit documents containing both text and graphics over ordinary telephone lines. On the plus side they allow organization users to quickly and easily share a printed form of information. On the down side, privacy can be compromised. (Robbins et al. 2015). © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 18 of 30  BMNG6222 Language differences are often closely related to differences in Technology and the manager’s individual perception. For a message to be properly job. communicated, the words used must have the same meaning to FYEO: Decoding communication jargon. sender and receiver. A South African organisation doing Okay… how well do you know Net business with a Japanese counterpart may have difficulty lingo? If you received an e-mail or explaining certain words to them. The Japanese, for instance, do text message with GFTD written in not have a word for ‘decision making’. They prefer using the word it, would you know what that meant? What about NSFW or ‘choose’, which suggests a difficult selection between options in BIL? When an employee received which we can gain some things only by giving up others. an e-mail at work from a friend with an attached slideshow Speech is usually accompanied by a variety of meaningful non- entitled “Awkward Family Photos,” she clicked through it and saw verbal cues, such a physical posture, head orientation, and some pretty unusual - yes, gestures, facial expressions, and so on. These silent messages awkward - photos. Looking back assist in the accurate transfer of meaning. (Smit, Cronje & Brevis. at the e-mail, that’s when she also 5th Ed. 2012:416 – 412). saw the abbreviation “NSFW” written at the bottom. Not knowing what that was, she looked the The use of an incorrect communication medium may also be a abbreviation up on netlingo.com barrier to effective communication. Three basic kinds of (one of several Web sites that translate Internet and texting communication medium can be used, namely written, oral, and abbreviations). Come to find out, multimedia. she should have paid more attention to the abbreviation: Managers need to be aware of the comparative effectiveness of NSFW stands for “not safe for work.” the different communication media when applied to different As text-messaging shorthand situations. When informing employees, for instance, becomes increasingly management must evaluate the effectiveness of the various widespread in e-mails, text communication instance, management must evaluate the messages, and tweets, people need to be aware of what it effectiveness of the various communication media. means. At many workplaces, a working knowledge of Net lingo is Information overload occurs when an individual receives so much becoming necessary. As information that he or she is overwhelmed by it. To prevent employees use social media sites such as Twitter and Facebook information overload, managers often ask subordinates for an and even text messaging to executive summary of a report. Writing this summary is a communicate with colleagues challenging job, as the subordinate needs clear insight into the and customers, the shorthand content of the report in order to identify the key issues (Smit, abbreviations are often necessary to stay within message Cronje & Brevis, 2012:416 - 420). length limits. However, as the NSFW example showed, not 5 Recommendations on How knowing or even misunderstanding the lingo can Managers can Become Better lead to surprises, inappropriate responses, or Communicators miscommunications. (BTW - which is Net lingo for “by the way”: FYEO means “for your 5.1 The Sender Encodes the Message and eyes only”; GFTD stands for “gone Selects the Channel for the day”; and BIL is ‘boss is listening.”) When messages are to be transmitted, senders must use their Source: Robbins SP, & DeCenzo DA, own perception to translate and compile the message so that it Coulter, M, (2015:398). Fundamentals of makes sense to the receivers. To overcome perception barriers, Management. Essential Concepts and Applications. 9th ed. Prentice Hall. New the message that is to be communicated must be analysed in Jersey. © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 19 of 30  BMNG6222 terms of its tone and content. Intonation and facial expression may influence the tone of the message. To formulate the content of the message, the sender has to decide exactly what has to be achieved. The sender can then plan the message to achieve the objective. In formulating the message, choice of words is important. One should avoid using jargon or unfamiliar terminology. The content of the message should arouse curiosity and interest. To overcome information overload, the sender should keep the message simple and direct. One should communicate within the receiver’s framework of experience, keeping the message concise and the objectives clear. Once the sender has encoded the message, a channel has to be selected. Before sending a message, careful thought should be given to selecting the most effective channel. For example, if the top management of an organisation wishes to announce an overall salary increase, e-mail will be a very effective communication channel, especially if followed by a general meeting at which employees are allowed to clarity uncertainties. 5.2 The Sender Transmits the Message The most significant barrier during this stage in the communication process is noise. Noise is anything that interferes with the transmission of the message, including the noise level in the physical setting in which communication is taking place. For example, noisy machinery or equipment may make it difficult to hear. Noise levels should be kept to a minimum. Activity: Timing is another important element in achieving effective communication and it will have a bearing on the communication Access the following link: approach that is adopted. The approach followed during a strike will differ from that just before employees go on holiday. [Online] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/w atch?v=t7Xr3AsBEK4 5.3 The Receiver Decodes the Message and [Accessed 24 October Decides whether Feedback is Needed 2017] Shirley Turkle on Common barriers to effective communication at this stage in the communication. communication process are trust and credibility, differences in Form groups in your class communication skills, and emotional factors. and discuss the effect technology has on the way To overcome trust and credibility barriers, affection and respect we communicate today – in should be offered and earned. Insight into and understanding of our private lives and in the the receiver’s viewpoint should be shown. An atmosphere of workplace © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 20 of 30  BMNG6222 cooperation and harmony should be created. The sender should try to send clear, correct messages, based on facts. Overcoming individual differences in communication skills requires effective feedback. It is essential that communication always be followed up to test whether the message that was sent was properly phrased and whether the intended audience has interpreted it correctly. This can be done by asking questions and motivating important point in its content. Important point in its content. Emotional people often find it difficult to communicate effectively. To overcome emotional barriers, communicators should remain calm and avoid making others emotional by their behaviour (Smit, Cronje & Brevis, 2012:421 - 422). 6 The Impact of Information Technology on the Communication Process According to Smit et al (2012:423), new information technology is changing the methods of communication available to managers and their subordinates. It also changes the communication channels that they use. These technologies are changing not only the manner in which managers and employees communicate with one other, but they are also changing the ways that they make decisions. Some of the most important communication methods developed during the past 25 years are the Internet, e-mail, business portals, databases, wireless communication and teleconferencing (other examples are telephone answering machines [voice mail], fax machines, closed-circuit television systems, computerised report preparation, videotaping, and computer-to-computer transmission). Because information on the Internet is potentially available to almost anyone in the world, it offers almost unlimited communication opportunities. Internet access usually provides electronic mail capability. It enables users to send, receive, and forward messages from people all over the world. Users can then reply to, save, file, and categorise received messages. E-mail has become popular with managers for several reasons: A manager doesn’t have to wait long for a response because information can usually be sent, returned, and recalled in moments; E-mail is relatively inexpensive; and © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 21 of 30  BMNG6222 It increases productivity by eliminating the need for paper- handling steps required in traditional inter-office communication systems. One disadvantage of e-mail, however, is that employees who might never confront co-workers face-to-face are less hesitant to explode at others via e-mail. E-mail has dramatically changed the way people can work. AOL (America-on-line) and Yahoo are general-purpose portals, or windows to the internet. A business portal is a specific organisation’s gateway to Internet-based information. Computer experts develop portals to help employees get the useful information they need from within and outside the organisation to do their jobs and make effective decisions. Business portals allow particular categories of employees, such as sales representatives, engineers or financial managers, to access useful information pertaining to their organisation (such as inventory levels, production figures and financial ratios) and information from the Internet (such as industry news, competitor sales). The business portal saves employees’ hours of time looking for relevant data; it also converts data into information that is timely, accurate, relevant and understandable. Employees can access data and information from their organisation’s database through its intranet or its website. They can also access databases on the World Wide Web either directly or through business portals. Some websites offer free information; others charge fees to access information. The trend towards wireless communication will continue, as people are becoming increasingly mobile. Handheld devices allow people to get information when and where they need it. A sales representative from a publisher can check in a customer’s office inventory, set delivery dates, plan new editions of books and close a sale by using a cell phone. Wireless communication can also be used to e-mail, share files, and tap into the organisation computer anytime from anywhere. Telecommuting allows organisations to recruit and hire people all over the world. Teleconferencing technology, which combines television and telephone technology, is another high-fidelity communication tool that organisations use to facilitate discussion all over the world. It allows participants to see each other’s body language and jointly view materials such as blueprints, charts, graphs, and even prototypes (Smit, Cronje & Brevis, 2012:422- 423). © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 22 of 30  BMNG6222 7 Interpersonal Relationships in Terms of Conflict and Negotiation. According to Smit et al (2012:424–428) the importance of communication skills in the workplace is nowhere more accentuated than in interpersonal relationships. Whenever interpersonal relationships exist, the potential for conflict exists. One method of managing conflict is by means of negotiation. In the discussion that follows, we shall consider a definition of conflict, managing organisational conflict, and negotiation. The three general 7.1 A Definition of Conflict characteristics of conflict are: incompatible goals, Conflict can be defined as ‘the interaction of interdependent interdependence, and people who perceive opposition of goals, aims, and values, and interaction. Source: Smit, PJ, Cronje, GJ, who see the other party as potentially interfering with the Brevis, T, (Editors). (2012). realisation of these goals’. (Smit, Cronje & Brevis. 5th Ed. Management Principles: A 2012:424 - 428). contemporary edition for Africa. 5th Ed. Cape Town: Juta. This definition highlights three general characteristics of conflict, namely incompatible goals, interdependence, and interaction. Many organisational conflicts stem from contradictory ideas about the distribution of organisational resources. Management and labour negotiate about working conditions and the distribution of wages, or the top management team argues about what capital investments to make in the coming financial year. For example, one manager may believe in participative decision making. While another may believe in an authoritative management style. This incompatibility may exist in harmony until their work demands that they become interdependent. If they are asked to work together on a project, conflict could well ensue. (Smit, Cronje & Brevis. 5th Ed. 2012:424 - 428). The last critical component in conflict is interaction. Conflict involves the expression of incompatibility, not its mere existence. This highlights the importance of communication in dealing with conflict. Conflict can be both destructive and productive. It can destroy work relationships or create a needed impetus for organisational change and development. Through communication, organisational members create and work through conflicts in ways that may be either functional or dysfunctional. (Smit, Cronje & Brevis. 5th Ed. 2012:424 - 428). © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 23 of 30  BMNG6222 7.2 Managing Organisational Conflict Avoidance is a technique by which the conflicting parties withdraw from a conflict. Not surprisingly, this technique is rarely effective. Problem solving involves a face-to-face meeting of the conflicting parties for the purpose of identifying the problem and resolving it through open discussion. Another way of managing conflict is to formulate a shared goal that cannot be attained without the cooperation of each of the conflicting parties. Where possible, resources can be expanded to create a win-win solution to conflict. Conflict can also be managed by playing down differences between the conflicting parties and emphasising their common interests. This is called ‘smoothing’. When each of the conflicting parties gives up something of value, this is called compromise. Management may decide to use authoritative command to resolve the conflict and to communicate its desires to the conflicting parties. The formal organisational Structure can also be changed to resolve conflict. This will result in a change in the communication patterns of the conflicting parties. Examples are job redesign and the creation of coordinating positions. A general strategy for dealing with organisational conflict is negotiation. (Smit, Cronje & Brevis. 5th Ed. 2012:424 - 428). 7.3 Negotiation Negotiation can be defined Negotiation is a fact of life - just as we cannot exist without as ‘a process of interaction communicating, so we can barely exist without negotiating. In (communication) between organisations, in particular, negotiation needs to be managed. parties, directed at reaching some form of agreement First, negotiation is an exchange of information through that will hold and that is based upon common communication, with the purpose of reaching an agreement interests, with the purpose between conflicting parties who have certain things in common of resolving conflict, despite and disagree on others. widely dividing differences. This is achieved basically Second, negotiation is regarded as a process, not an event. through the establishment of common ground and the creation of alternatives.’ Third, the definition implies that the process should be directed Source: Smit, PJ, Cronje, GJ, at reaching some form of agreement, preferably a win-win Brevis, T, (Editors). (2012). situation. Management Principles: A contemporary edition for Africa. 5th Ed. Cape Town: Juta. Fourth, common ground does not refer to what the parties have in common, but what they could become together. Fifth, the definition refers to the creation of alternatives, which implies flexibility in the process. © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 24 of 30  BMNG6222 Reference is also made to dividing differences, which may be bridged by bringing the parties together physically, especially if both sides are flexible and willing to discuss options. Finally, the definition refers to agreements that hold. This is the real test of whether negotiation has succeeded (Smit, Cronje & Brevis, 2012:424 - 426). 8 Recommended Additional Reading Bateman, T.S. & Snell, S.A. 2015. Management: Leading & Collaborating in then Competitive World. 11th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Jones, GR., George, JM., (2015). Contemporary Management. 8th Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Robbins SP, & DeCenzo DA, Coulter, M, (2015). Fundamentals of Management. Essential Concepts and Applications. 9th ed. Prentice Hall. New Jersey. Smit, PJ, Cronje, GJ, Brevis, T, (Editors). (2012). Management Principles: A contemporary edition for Africa. 5th Ed. Cape Town: Juta. 9 Recommended Digital Engagement and Activities 10 Activities 10.1 Activity 1 Research the characteristics of a good communicator. Write up your findings in a bulleted list report. Be sure to cite your sources. Form groups and discuss your findings. 10.2 Activity 2 Right or Wrong? Gossiping is a common practice both outside and inside organisations. For organisations, it can consume a lot of time and be quite distracting. © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 25 of 30  BMNG6222 Form groups in class and discuss: Is office gossip beneficial for individuals? Organisations? Explain why or why not? What ethical dilemmas might arise because of office gossip? 10.3 Activity 3 Management Myth MYTH: Managers should try to stifle the grapevine TRUTH: Astute managers acknowledge the existence of the grapevine and use it in beneficial ways. As evidenced by Wiki Leaks, information can be a powerful tool. Organisations need to take security issues seriously as leaked personal or account information would cause customers to lose faith in the organisation. Questions to discuss: How do students protect the security of their Twitter accounts and e-mail accounts? Are organisations and individuals liable for any information distributed from one of their hacked accounts? 11 Revision Exercises Questions 11.1 Explain the barriers to effective communication in detail. 11.2 Discuss the impact of information technology on communication. Provide some guideline that a manager can make use of when managing 11.3 organisational conflict. 11.4 Define negotiation. © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 26 of 30  BMNG6222 Intellectual Property Plagiarism occurs in a variety of forms. Ultimately though, it refers to the use of the words, ideas or images of another person without acknowledging the source using the required conventions. The IIE publishes a Quick Reference Guide that provides more detailed guidance, but a brief description of plagiarism and referencing is included below for your reference. It is vital that you are familiar with this information and the Intellectual Integrity Policy before attempting any assignments. Introduction to Referencing and Plagiarism What is ‘Plagiarism’? ‘Plagiarism’ is the act of taking someone’s words or ideas and presenting them as your own. What is ‘Referencing’? ‘Referencing’ is the act of citing or giving credit to the authors of any work that you have referred to or consulted. A ‘reference’ then refers to a citation (a credit) or the actual information from a publication that is referred to. Referencing is the acknowledgment of any work that is not your own, but is used by you in an academic document. It is simply a way of giving credit to and acknowledging the ideas and words of others. When writing assignments, students are required to acknowledge the work, words or ideas of others through the technique of referencing. Referencing occurs in the text at the place where the work of others is being cited, and at the end of the document, in the bibliography. The bibliography is a list of all the work (published and unpublished) that a writer has read in the course of preparing a piece of writing. This includes items that are not directly cited in the work. A reference is required when you: Quote directly: when you use the exact words as they appear in the source; Copy directly: when you copy data, figures, tables, images, music, videos or frameworks; Summarise: when you write a short account of what is in the source; Paraphrase: when you state the work, words and ideas of someone else in your own words. © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 27 of 30  BMNG6222 It is standard practice in the academic world to recognise and respect the ownership of ideas, known as intellectual property, through good referencing techniques. However, there are other reasons why referencing is useful. Good Reasons for Referencing It is good academic practice to reference because: It enhances the quality of your writing; It demonstrates the scope, depth and breadth of your research; It gives structure and strength to the aims of your article or paper; It endorses your arguments; It allows readers to access source documents relating to your work, quickly and easily. Sources The following would count as ‘sources’: Books, Chapters from books, Encyclopaedia, Articles, Journals, Magazines, Periodicals, Newspaper articles, Items from the Internet (images, videos, etc.), Pictures, Unpublished notes, articles, papers, books, manuscripts, dissertations, theses, etc., Diagrams, Videos, Films, Music, Works of fiction (novels, short stories or poetry). What You Need to Document from the Hard Copy Source You are Using (Not every detail will be applicable in every case. However, the following lists provide a guide to what information is needed.) © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 28 of 30  BMNG6222 You need to acknowledge: The words or work of the author(s), The author(s)’s or editor(s)’s full names, If your source is a group/ organisation/ body, you need all the details, Name of the journal, periodical, magazine, book, etc., Edition, Publisher’s name, Place of publication (i.e. the city of publication), Year of publication, Volume number, Issue number, Page numbers. What You Need to Document if you are Citing Electronic Sources Author(s)’s/ editor(s)’s name, Title of the page, Title of the site, Copyright date, or the date that the page was last updated, Full Internet address of page(s), Date you accessed/ viewed the source, Any other relevant information pertaining to the web page or website. Referencing Systems There are a number of referencing systems in use and each has its own consistent rules. While these may differ from system-to-system, the referencing system followed needs to be used consistently, throughout the text. Different referencing systems cannot be mixed in the same piece of work! A detailed guide to referencing, entitled Referencing and Plagiarism Guide is available from your library. Please refer to it if you require further assistance. When is Referencing Not Necessary? This is a difficult question to answer – usually when something is ‘common knowledge’. However, it is not always clear what ‘common knowledge’ is. Examples of ‘common knowledge’ are: Nelson Mandela was released from prison in 1990; The world’s largest diamond was found in South Africa; South Africa is divided into nine (9) provinces; The lion is also known as ‘The King of the Jungle’. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 The sky is blue. © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 29 of 30  BMNG6222 Usually, all of the above examples would not be referenced. The equation 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 is Einstein’s famous equation for calculations of total energy and has become so familiar that it is not referenced to Einstein. Sometimes what we think is ‘common knowledge’, is not. For example, the above statement about the sky being blue is only partly true. The light from the sun looks white, but it is actually made up of all the colours of the rainbow. Sunlight reaches the Earth's atmosphere and is scattered in all directions by all the gases and particles in the air. The smallest particles are by coincidence the same length as the wavelength of blue light. Blue is scattered more than the other colours because it travels as shorter, smaller waves. It is not entirely accurate then to claim that the sky is blue. It is thus generally safer to always check your facts and try to find a reputable source for your claim. Important Plagiarism Reminders The IIE respects the intellectual property of other people and requires its students to be familiar with the necessary referencing conventions. Please ensure that you seek assistance in this regard before submitting work if you are uncertain. If you fail to acknowledge the work or ideas of others or do so inadequately this will be handled in terms of the Intellectual Integrity Policy (available in the library) and/ or the Student Code of Conduct – depending on whether or not plagiarism and/ or cheating (passing off the work of other people as your own by copying the work of other students or copying off the Internet or from another source) is suspected. Your campus offers individual and group training on referencing conventions – please speak to your librarian or ADC/ Campus Co-Navigator in this regard. Reiteration of the Declaration you have signed: 1. I have been informed about the seriousness of acts of plagiarism. 2. I understand what plagiarism is. 3. I am aware that The Independent Institute of Education (IIE) has a policy regarding plagiarism and that it does not accept acts of plagiarism. 4. I am aware that the Intellectual Integrity Policy and the Student Code of Conduct prescribe the consequences of plagiarism. 5. I am aware that referencing guides are available in my student handbook or equivalent and in the library and that following them is a requirement for successful completion of my programme. 6. I am aware that should I require support or assistance in using referencing guides to avoid plagiarism I may speak to the lecturers, the librarian or the campus ADC/ Campus Co-Navigator. 7. I am aware of the consequences of plagiarism. Please ask for assistance prior to submitting work if you are at all unsure. © The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2024 Page 30 of 30