Biopsych 202 Exam 1 Study Guide PDF

Exam 1 Study Guide Below is a list of what I consider the most important concepts from the textbook and lecture. Many of the terms below may best be learned by frequent testing (e.g. with flashcards); others might require drawings or pictures. However, be sure that you are thinking about the concep...

Exam 1 Study Guide Below is a list of what I consider the most important concepts from the textbook and lecture. Many of the terms below may best be learned by frequent testing (e.g. with flashcards); others might require drawings or pictures. However, be sure that you are thinking about the concepts more broadly, so that you’re not relying solely on definitions. Lastly, many exam questions may include multiple concepts, so I can test your understanding of how various terms relate. You’ll notice this especially with terms such as “this” vs. “that.” Introduction Behavioral neuroscience: The study of the biological basis of psychological processes and behavior. Used to determine how the brain processes info, makes memories and decisions, associated with emotions and cognitive development - Biology + psychology + neuroscience Scientific method Aristotle and the brain … or heart? Early ideas about where all the important stuff was happening, before we knew the brain was the main guy, thought the heart was the center of thought/function (ex: i mean it from my heart) Descartes and the brain: explained the brain and neuron pathways in terms of mechanics and hydraulic functions, proposed the idea of spinal reflexes and pathways that control them, and proposed the idea of dualism Dualism: that humans have a nonmaterial soul as well as a material body and that this soul governs behavior through a point of contact (such as pineal gland) Franz Gall and the brain Phrenology: belief that bumps on the skill result from enlargements of brain regions responsible for certain behavioral/personality aspects. By Thomas willis. Popularized locality of functions Localization of function: concept that different brain regions specialize in specific behaviors (not always true as language locations differ for left and right handed people as well as other special situations) Neuroplasticity: the idea that the brain can expand and change its pathways to compensate for aging, damage to a certain part of the brain, or new skills. - Related to neurogenesis (creation of new neurons) whose rate can be altered, definitely occurs in the hippocampus in making memories Structure & Function (Ch 1) Neurons and their principal components Dendrite: the part of the neuron that is part of the input section of the neuron signal process, take the signal and sends it to the soma/cell body Dendrite spikes: on the ends of neurons that act as receptors for previous neurons’ transmitters  Soma: also known as the cell body, has all the traits as any other cells, with organelles and stuff. Where nucleus is with DNA and RNA Nucleus: responsible for holding the DNA of the human and ability to replicate if necessary, located in the soma Axon hillock: at the end of the soma, where the process of integration occurs in multipolar and bipolar neurons, where the decision of sending a signal or not occurs Axon: the long body part of the neuron that send the signal down the bod, spead up but the existence of myelin cells along its body. Depending on the type of neuron, they can be from a meter long to a few millimeters. where the process of conduction takes place Axon terminals: located at the end of the axon collaterals (where the axon can sometimes split at the end) where the process of output takes place, it sends out the signal to the next neuron via neurotransmitters Types of Neurons Sensory (mainly in the sensory system, long and fast, they can be different shapes depending on the signal, affected by changes in environment) motor (long and fast, synapses on muscles to move and receive info from them) interneurons (the neurons in between that make up the complex pathways, typically small (1mm)) Uni (have just one long line of axon from the single dendrite shoot to the axon terminals, soma shoots off on the side of the axon, the integration zone is instead after the dendrite joins the axon, transmits to the spinal cord ) bi (have one dendrite offshoot and axon length, the cell body is located in its normal place, typically in sensory systems) multipolar neurons (the neurons type we are used to seeing most often, can have multiple dendrite off shoots) Flow of information within & between neurons Pre vs. postsynaptic: presynapse is where the signal is coming from the axon terminals of the neurons where the signal is being transmitted from (output), the postsynapse is where the information is being received by dendrite spikes of the next neuron (input) Synapse: the space where the signal is transmitted across Vesicle: what the neurotransmitters are transported it, fuse to the presynaptic membrane and release the neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft Neurotransmitter: the chemicals that bind to the dendrite spike receptors and stimulate the start of the action potential, don't actually enter the post-neuron, just bind and then are released to diffuse Receptor: on the postsynaptic membrane and are also called the dendrite spikes, site where the neurotransmitter binds, protein typically Nodes of Ranvier: the spaces into between the myelin sheaths where the axon membrane is exposed Glial cell types and jobs Oligodendrocyte: in the central nervous system, responsible for creating myelin sheath on the neurons, does this by using its long tentacles, if die off, cant regenerate  Schwann cell: makes myelin sheaths in the peripheral nervous system, wraps around neurons to do so. If die off, can regenerate/heal Myelin: the fatty substance that wraps around the axon to speed up the electrical signal Astrocyte: creates the blood brain barrier between the brain and capillaries there, provides the brain with nutrients from the blood since the brain cannot directly touch blood, sends out waste products and creates cushioning for brain in skull with thick outer membrane Microglia: version of immune system in the brain since white blood cells can't be there, clean junk, if goes roque can cause multiple sclerosis NG2 cells: Possess some functional receptors and contact neurons at nodes of ranvier via synaptic terminals,some even fire action potentials Santiago Ramon y Cajal Neuron doctrine: made by Cajal, says that neurons are structurally and functionally independent, isn't one giant interconnected and interdependent web Divisions of the nervous system CNS (comprising the brain and spinal cord) vs. PNS (everything else, go to and from the CNS) Autonomic (little voluntary control over its actions, cant really sense its actions) vs. somatic (connect brain and and major muscles and sensory systems, voluntary actions, can sense its actions) -both part of the PNS Sympathetic (fight vs flight, nerves enter the body from the thoracic section of the spinal cord and converge in a long line called the sympathetic ganglia before going to the major organ systems) vs. parasympathetic (rest and digest, enter the body at the brainstem and the sacral (above and below the sympathetic nervous system, their ganglia are closer to the organs they serve and its not a long all encompassing line as in the sympathetic nervous system) Afferent (arrive at the region) / Efferent (exits the region) Anatomical Planes Sagittal (splits brain into left and right) /coronal (splits brain into front and back) /horizontal (splits brain into top and bottom) Directional terms in the brain Dorsal (towards back, like dolphin’s dorsal fin) / Ventral (towards stomach/gut) Rostral (front of head)/ Caudal (back of head) Superior (above) / Inferior (below) Medial (towards middle) / Lateral (towards side) Ipsilateral (same side) / Contralateral (opposite side) Subdivisions of the brain Forebrain: Telencephalon (cerebral cortex, basal ganglia (Globus pallidus, Caudate, putamen), limbic system(amygdala, hippocampus)), Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus)  Midbrain: Mesencephalon (Superior colliculus, Inferior colliculus central, Cerebral aqueduct, Periaqueductal gray, Substantia nigra) Hindbrain: Metencephalon (cerebellum, pons) , Myelencephalon (medulla) Telencephalon: cerebral cortex, basal ganglia (Globus pallidus, Caudate, putamen), limbic system(amygdala, hippocampus) (forebrain) Diencephalon: thalamus, hypothalamus (forebrain) Mesencephalon: Superior colliculus, Inferior colliculus central, Cerebral aqueduct, Periaqueductal gray, Substantia nigra (midbrain) Metencephalon: cerebellum, pons (hindbrain) Myelencephalon: medulla (hindbrain) Tell Di, Mes met My Nuclei (collections of nerves in the CNS) vs ganglia (collections of nerves in the PNS) Tracts (bundles of axons in the CNS) vs. nerves (bundles of axons in the PNS) Gyrus/gyri : hills/crests in the brain cortex Sulcus/sulci :valleys / dips in the brain cortes Gray vs. white matter: gray matter is the dendrites and somas, receives/processes info, outer part of cortex. While white matter is the myelin sheaths, transmits info, inside part of the cortex) Brainstem- relative location and function of each Medulla: in myelencephalon, hindbrain. It is responsible for involuntary actions like breathing and blood flow Pons: metencephalon, hindbrain. It is responsible for REM sleep, bridge between cerebellum and cerebrum Cerebellum: metencephalon, hindbrain. Midbrain: mesencephalon, defensive and reproductive actions. Processed visual and auditory info Dorsal vs. Ventral PAG Superior & inferior colliculus: superior processes visual information about gaze direction and attention. Inferior processes sounds Substantia nigra & dopamine: where dopamine is sent out, dopaminergic projections Cerebral cortex: from telencephalon, higher level human thought processes Corpus callosum: connects left and right hemispheres of the brain Four lobes: relative position & function of each Frontal lobe: in front of brain, responsible for movement planning, and high level cognition Temporal lobe: by your ear, on the side, hearing language memory Parietal lobe: behind frontal, above temporal. Responsible for sensory info and spacial thought Occipital lobe: vision, in the back of your brain Nuclei beneath the cortex Hypothalamus: motivator, thirst, hunger, the 4 f’s (feeding, fleeing, fighting, f-ing) Thalamus: messenger, direct flow of info from the cortex Pituitary gland: regulates growth, metabolism, and reproduction hormones. Hormone center  Basal ganglia: located in the telencephalon and forebrain Caudate: goal directed, learning, working memory Putamen: motor skills, planning and preparations globus pallidus: proprioceptive, conscious movements Limbic system: located in the telencephalon and forebrain Amygdala: emotional response Hippocampus: spatial navigation, episodic memory (part of the brain stem) Ventricles & Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): Blood Brain Barrier (BBB): Maintained by the capillaries surrounding the brain, don't allow large molecules to get in, prevent infections and stuff but makes it difficult for drugs to reach the brain Ways of visualizing the brain as well as activity & why you would choose each Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI): uses diffusion of water signals to show axonal tracts, learn how brain structures work together, tractography, MRI type, correlational Electroencephalography (EEG), record electrical activity of the brain, learn when brain is active during task, not where, correlational Magnetoencephalography (MEG) measures tiny magnetic fields made when neurons are activated, can show quick changes in brain activity but not really where, correlational Positron emission tomography (PET): insert chemical (usually glucose) with a radioactive tracker that will show its path along the brain, shows where/when brain is active, track activity changes better, correlational Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): uses oscillating magnetic fields to show brain metabolism changes (oxygen and blood flow) to she what region of the brain is activated during a task, localization of activity. Very good spatial resolution but not fast enough to track quick brain activity, correlational Lesion methods: like phineas gage and tan. Shows causal evidence that the absence of activity after lesion is related to that region Stimulation methods: simulation via electrodes, TMS Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS): uses magnetic wand to turn on/off parts of brain and see how this affects brain activity, causal Connectional methods: question about connections between neurons. Tracer injection (inject substance taken up by neurons), DTI Nissl vs. Golgi stain: nissl shows the number and density of neurons, golgi shows the specific anatomy of a few cells in lots of detail (used by Cajal to prove Golgi’s theory of connect and dependent neurons wrong) In situ hybridization: radioactively labels DNA and RNA and then sees when and where its expressed, can show where brain was recently active Autoradiography: Radioactive substance injected into brain, designed to be taken up by the type of cell we want to study, using radioactivity to let tissue take selfie of itself  Immunohistochemistry: protein of interest, create antibodies of it, soak tissue in antibodies and they will only stick to protein of interest Correlational vs. causal methods: correlational can't prove causation while causal does Independent vs. dependent variable: independent is what is changed in experiment, dependent is what changes as a result of the independent variable Experimental vs. control group : experimental group is when the independent variable is changed and the control group is used as baseline to see the changes as a result of the experiment and compare Correlation vs. causality: correlational can't prove causation while causal does Neurophysiology (Ch 2) Neurophysiology Microelectrodes: used to read electric potentials in living cells, used to show the inside of the neuron cell is (-) Resting potential: the state of a neuron where is isn't in an AP cycle, usually at a consistent negative mV around –65 mV - maintained by electrostatic and diffusion of mainly K+ and some Na+ in Na-K pump - The constant (-) mV inside the cell creates electrostatic pressure for the K+ - k leak channels/semi permeable membrane Ions used in neural communication Na+, K+, Cl-, Ca2+ Cations (+) vs anions (-) Ligand vs. voltage-gated ion channels Diffusion vs. electrostatic pressure: Diffusion is when a particle moves from high concentration to low concentration. Electrostatic pressure is the ion moving to the region with a charge opposite to its own - Electrostatic pressure makes K+ come into the cell and Na+ want to, and Cl- stay outside mainly - The diffusion pressure pushes k+ out of the cell to where it is less concentrated - The constant (-) mV inside the cell creates electrostatic pressure for the K+ + + Na /K pumps: part of maintaining resting potential, 2 K+ for every 3 Na Hyper- vs depolarization Excitatory vs. inhibitory postsynaptic potential 5 steps in an action potential Threshold: the mV value that the inside charge of the neuron must meet in order for the neuron to fire he AP All-or-none: once it reaches the threshold, the AP will fire at the same magnitude every time. A stronger electric signal to stimulate the AP does not create a larger AP than one that just meets the threshold Firing rate: how quickly the neuron can fire, based on how long it taked for the neuron to get through the refractory period More AP per second is a stronger response  Less AP per second is a weaker response Refractory period: after the Na+ v-channels open then close, they remain closed for an amount of time before can respond/ do the next AP Absolute refractory period: no stimulus, no matter how strong will not stimulate the AP relative refractory period: a super big stimulus could stimulate the AP Saltatory conduction: the action potential ‘jumping’ from node to node b/c thats where the na voltage gated channels are and that's the direction of the AP charge wave. It jumps over the myelin sheath whose anatomy prevent the charges from escaping/entering (speeds up the process) Multiple sclerosis: can be caused by roque microglial cells destroying oligodendrocytes Spatial vs temporal summation Spatial summation: temporal summation: Agonist vs. antagonist Agonist: Acts as a NT, prevents reuptake, wants more NT, block degradation system for more neurotransmitters in synapses, like Ca2+ that helps NT created Antagonist: They stimulate autorecpetors (that stop the transmission of NTs) and block neurotransmitters Clearance of the synapse Reuptake (back into presynaptic neuron), degradation (degraded bny enzymes in cleft), diffusion(floats off) Forebrain vs Midbrain vs Hindbrain Study session notes --cephalons Forebrain - Telencephalon - Cerebral - basal ganglia - limbic system - Diencephalon Midbrain - Mesencephalon Hindbrain - Metencephalon - Pons - Cerebellum - Myelencephalon Should we know AcH and the agonists/antagonists….???? - Is the main excitatory neurotransmitter PEt: want to see where stuff is goin - Not neural activity, just blood scans and specific substances , not fast (PET and fMRI MRI: take a pic fMRI: motion, oxygenated blood flow CAT scan: result of tiny bits of data and put into a puzzle to put together Eeg and erp are kinda only activity tracking ones that actually track - No one knows how any of this works lowkey What happens to neuro t after - Reuotaje - Destruction - Diffusion Study suggestions - Clue sessions - Go over understand white board picture that on canvas and redraw it a thousand times - Directional terms - Functions and stuff of methods - Neuroanatomy - Neural communication - Rostral: nostril caudal: to back of face Know the major inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitters and their antagonists/agonists ISP: GABA ESP: AcH When AP arrives at axon terminal, the voltage gated Ca+ channels open