Biological/Physiological Psychology PDF - Finals

Biological/Physiological Psychology Jade Gomez | MWF | 5-7pm | Finals Chapter 8: Wakefulness and Sleep Disruptions of Circadian Rhythms (LAJSD) Mol...

Biological/Physiological Psychology Jade Gomez | MWF | 5-7pm | Finals Chapter 8: Wakefulness and Sleep Disruptions of Circadian Rhythms (LAJSD) Molecular Mechanisms Lifestyle Factors Clock Genes It includes work schedules, social activities, and sleep These are specific genes that regulate circadian hygiene that affect sleep patterns. rhythms (e.g. CLOCK, BMAL1, PER, CRI). Example: Irregular sleep schedules due to shift work It is involved in the synthesis of proteins that oscillate can lead to sleep disturbances. in concentration. Age Feedback Loops Circadian rhythms can change with age, affecting sleep These are proteins that inhibit their own expression, patterns. creating rhythmic cycles. Example: Older adults may experience earlier Example: PER and CRY proteins inhibit CLOCK and bedtimes and wake times. BMAL1 activity. Jet Lag Circadian Rhythm Generation Disruptions caused by traveling across time zones. Rhythmic expression of genes influences physiological Example: Feeling tired and having difficulty sleeping responses. after a long flight. It affects hormone release, body temperature, and sleep patterns. Shift Work Irregular schedules disrupt natural sleep-wake cycles. External Synchronizers (Zeitgebers) Example: Difficulty sleeping during the way when working night shifts. Definition These are environmental cues that help synchronize Sleep Disorders the biological clock with the external environment. Conditions like insomnia and sleep apnea disrupt sleep Examples: Light, temperature, and social interactions patterns. Example: Difficulty falling asleep or breathing Light Exposure interruptions during sleep. The primary zeitgeber influencing circadian rhythms. Example: The morning sunlight helps reset the SCN. Biological Clock Other Cues It is the internal process regulating circadian rhythms Additional factors that can influence circadian over a 24-hour period. rhythms. Example: Controls sleep-wake cycles and various Example: Feedback schedules and social activities. physiological processes. Effects of Disruption Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) Consequences Location Disruptions can lead to health issues and circadian It is a small region in the hypothalamus, above the misalignment. optic chism. Example: Sleep disorders, mood disorders, and It acts as the primary clock in mammals. metabolic problems Role Circadian Misalignment It generates and regulates circadian rhythms. It occurs due to irregular sleep schedules or travel It coordinates the internal clock with external light across time zones. cues. Example: Jet lag and shift work leading to fatigue and sleep disturbances. Input It receives direct input from the retina. Research Implications Light exposure influences SCN activity. Health and Treatment It contains orexin-producing neurons that promote Understanding mechanisms can aid in treating wakefulness and stabilize sleep patterns. circadian rhythm disorders. Example: Responds to light and darkness, helping Examples: Developing therapies for insomnia and regulate sleep patterns. optimizing performance. Thalamus Stages of Sleep It is the realty center for sensory information. It plays a role in sleep regulation. NREM Sleep It filters sensory inputs during sleep, allowing focus on It stands for Non-Rapid Eye Movement Sleep. internal processes. It is divided into several stages: Example: Reduces sensory information during sleep, prevents disturbances from the environment. Stage 1 It is also called “Light Sleep”. Basal Forebrain It is the transition between wakefulness and sleep. It produces acetylcholine. important for promoting It is associated with decreased brain activity and alertness and REM sleep. relaxation of muscles. It activates the cortex and facilitates learning and Examples: Drowsiness when watching TV; easily memory. awakened. Example: Involved in the transition from wakefulness to REM sleep. Stage 2 It is also called “Deeper Sleep”. Pineal Gland It is characterized by sleep spindles and It produces melatonin, a hormone that regulates K-complement. sleep-wake cycles. It is associated with sleep spindles reflecting bursts of Melatonin secretion increases in darkness, promoting brain activity, and thalamic activity decreases. sleepiness. Examples: Becoming less aware of surroundings; heart Example: Melatonin levels rise in the evening, rate slows down. preparing the body for sleep Stage 3 Physiological Changes During Sleep It is also called “Slow-Wave Sleep”. It is deep sleep with delta waves. Heart Rate It is associated with the domination of slow delta It decreases during NREM sleep, especially in during waves, and the restoration of body function. deep sleep. Examples: Hard to wake someone; physical restoration It slows down as the body enters deeper sleep stages. occurs (e.g. tissue growth). Example: Heart rate slows to around 20-60 beats per minute in deep sleep. REM Sleep It stands for “Rapid Eye Movement Sleep”. Breathing Rate It is characterized by increased brain activity and It becomes more regular and slows down during sleep. dreaming. It stabilizes during NREM and becomes irregular It is associated with the brainstem structures during REM. inhibiting motor neurons, causing muscle atonia, high Example: Breathing may drop significantly during deep activity in the forebrain and visual association areas. sleep. Example: Vivid dreaming occurs; eyes move under eyelids while body is relaxed. Muscle Tone It decreases significantly during REM sleep: muscle Brain Mechanisms of Sleep atonia occurs. It prevents acting out dreams; relaxation of muscle Reticular Formation groups. It is a network of neurons in the brainstem regulating Example: Muscles are relaxed, preventing movement arousal and wakefulness. during vivid dreams. It activates the cortex, promoting alertness and attention. Brain Mechanisms of Wakefulness Example: Activates when you hear a sudden loud noise. Reticular Formation Hypothalamus It is a network of neurons in the brainstem that It regulates sleep-wake cycles, and influences REM regulates arousal and attention. sleep.  It activates the cortex, promoting alertness and Prefrontal Cortex sensory processing. It plays a role in executive functions, decision-making, Example: The reticular formation helps you stay awake and maintaining focus. during a long lecture. It increases attention and regulates responses to stimuli. Locus Coeruleus Example: The prefrontal cortex helps you plan your It is a cluster of neurons in the pons that releases day and prioritizes tasks. norepinephrine, enhancing arousal. It increases alertness and response to stimuli involved Neurotransmitters of Sleep, Wake, and Arousal in the stress response. Example: When you hear a sudden loud noise, the locus Norepinephrine coeruleus helps you quickly become alert. It is released by the locus coeruleus; increases arousal and alertness. Hypothalamus It enhances focus and response to new information. It regulates various bodily functions; including Example: Norepinephrine helps you stay alert during a sleep-wake cycles and arousal. challenging meeting. It contains orexin-producing neurons that promote wakefulness and energy. Acetylcholine Example: The hypothalamus helps regulate your It is involved in promoting wakefulness and attention. sleep-wake schedule, ensuring you feel awake in the It facilitates communication between neurons in the morning. cortex. Example: Acetylcholine increases your attention while Thalamus reading a book. It is a relay station for sensory information; it plays a role in regulating wakefulness. Dopamine It filters sensory input and directs attention to It modulates motivation, pleasure, and arousal. important stimuli. It influences drive and engagement in tasks and Example: The thalamus helps you focus on a activities. conversation in a noisy environment. Example: Dopamine release when you achieve a goal keeps you motivated to pursue more challenges. Brain Mechanisms of Arousal Serotonin Basal Forebrain It is involved in mood regulation and can impact It produces acetylcholine, important for maintaining wakefulness. alertness and facilitating learning. It affects sleep-wake cycles and emotional states. It activates the cortex, enhancing attention and Example: Serotonin levels influence your mood, memory. making you feel more positive and awake during the day. Example: The basal forebrain helps you concentrate while studying for an exam. Physiological Effects of Sleep, Wake, and Arousal Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) It produces dopamine, contributing to reward Heart Rate processing and motivation. It increases during period of wakefulness and arousal. It enhances arousal and engagement in rewarding Heightened heart rate in response to stress or activities. excitement. Example: When you receive good news, the VTA Example: Your heart races when you watch a thrilling increases dopamine levels, making you feel excited and movie. motivated. Blood Pressure Amygdala It typically rises during arousal states. It is involved in processing emotions and can influence Elevated blood pressure in stressful situations. arousal states. Example: Your blood pressure rises when you are It increases arousal in response to threats or nervous before a presentation. emotional stimuli. Example: If you encounter a snake, the amygdala Breathing Rate heightens your arousal and prepares you to react. It becomes faster during heightened arousal. Increased breathing during physical activity or stress. Example: You breathe more rapidly when you are exercising or when you are excited.  It facilitates emotional resilience and adaptation. Why Sleep? Example: People report feeling better emotionally after a good night’s sleep. Restoration Sleep allows the body to repair and restore itself. Creativity and Problem Solving It is essential for physical health, cellular repair, and REM sleep enhances creative thinking and muscle growth. problem-solving abilities. Example: Growth hormone is released during sleep to It allows for the integration of new information and facilitate recovery. ideas. Example: Many artists and scientists report insights Memory Consolidation gained during REM sleep. Sleep plays a critical role in the consolidation of memories. Why Dreams? It enhances learning and retention of information from the day. Cognitive Processing Example: Studying before sleep improves recall of Dreams may help with problem-solving and cognitive learned material. processing. It allows the brain to work through issues and Energy Conservation emotions. Sleep helps conserve energy by lowering metabolic Example: Individuals may find solutions to problems demands. after dreaming about them. It reduces caloric expenditure when not actively engaging in tasks. Emotional Processing Example: Decreased heart rate and body temperature Dreams can facilitate the processing of emotional during sleep. experiences. It helps to process and make sense of daily emotional Brain Maintenance experiences. Sleep promotes the clearance of metabolic wastes Example: Recurrent themes in dreams often reflect from the brain. unresolved emotions. It is essential for long-term brain health and cognitive function. Simulation of Threats Example: Increased clearance of beta-amyloid protein Dreams may serve as a mechanism for rehearsing during sleep. response to threats. It prepares individuals for real-life challenges and Why REM? dangers. Example: Nightmares can simulate threatening Brain Development scenarios, prompting readiness. REM sleep is crucial for brain maturation and development, particularly in infants. Memory Integration It supports neural connections and brain plasticity. Dreams may help in integrating new memories with Example: Infants spend more time in REM sleep than existing knowledge. adults. It aids in the consolidation of learning and experiences. Emotional Regulation Example: Recurring dreams may connect pass REM sleep helps process emotions and regulates mood. experiences to current life situations. Chapter 9: Internal Regulation Homeostasis Feedback Mechanisms Homeostasis relies on feedback loops, particularly Definition negative feedback, to maintain stability. It is the process by which the body maintains a stable It detects deviations from set points and triggers internal environment despite external changes. corrective actions. It involves physiological processes that regulate body Example: Regulation of body temperature via sweating. functions. Example: Maintaining body temperature, pH levels, and Set Points electrolyte balance These are ideal values for various physiological parameters that the body tries to maintain.  These are specific target ranges for temperature, Feedback Mechanisms hydration, and glucose levels. Negative feedback loops help regulate body The set point for body temperature is approximately temperature. 98.6F or 37C. It detects temperature deviations and initiates corrective actions. Importance Example: Sweating to cool down when overheated. Homeostasis is essential for surviving, growth, and optimal functioning of biological systems. Physiological Responses It prevents extremes that could disrupt bodily These are responses to maintain temperature balance. functions. It involves the autonomic nervous system activation. Example: Maintaining stable blood glucose levels to Example: Shivering in response to cold temperature ensure energy supply. Surviving in Extreme Cold Allostasis Physiological Adaptations Definition These are mechanisms that help the body cope with It is the process of achieving stability through extreme cold. changes, adapting to varying conditions over time. It involves increased metabolism and shivering It involves anticipatory and reactive responses to generates heat. stressors. Example: Animals like bears hibernate, slowing Example: Adjusting physiological responses based on metabolism to conserve energy. past experiences and predictions. Behavioral Adaptations Allostatic Load These are actions taken to reduce exposure to cold. It is the cumulative wear and tear on the body due to It involves seeking shelter, wearing insulated clothing, chronic stress and allostatic adjustments. and using heat sources. It can lead to health issues when the body is unable to Example: Finding shelter during a snowstorm or adapt effectively. bundling up in winter. Example: Long-term stress contributing to cardiovascular diseases or metabolic disorders. Vasoconstriction It is the narrowing of blood vessels to reduce heat Adaptive Mechanisms loss. Allostasis involves changing set points and It redirects blood flow in vital organs. physiological processes in response to environmental Example: Blood vessels in extremities constrict to demands. conserve core body heat. It allows the body to prepare for anticipated challenges. The Advantages of Constant High Body Example: Increased heart rate and blood pressure in Temperature anticipation of a stressful event. Enhanced Enzymatic Activity Importance Higher temperature increases metabolic rates and Allostasis supports resilience by enabling the body to enzyme efficiency. respond effectively to changing environments. It supports faster biochemical reactions in cells. It promotes recovery from stress and enhances Example: Mammals maintain high body temperatures overall health. to support active lifestyles. Example: Hormonal adaptations during exercise training improve physical performance. Greater Mobility and Activity Higher body temperatures allow for sustained physical Controlling Body Temperature activity. It facilitates muscle function and endurance. Thermoregulation Example: Birds can maintain high temperatures for It is the process by which the body maintains its flight efficiency. internal temperature within a narrow range. It involves hypothalamic regulation, physiological Immune Function responses (e.g. sweating, shivering). Higher temperature can enhance immune response. Example: Body temperature is maintained around It increases the production of WBC and antibodies. 98.6G or 37C. Example: Higher body temperature during infection can aid in fighting pathogens.  Brain Mechanisms of Thermoregulation Hunger and Eating Hypothalamus It is the brain region that regulates body temperature. Hunger Regulation It acts as the body’s thermostat, detecting D: It is the combination of physiological signals temperature changes. (hormones, blood glucose) and behavioral cues. Example: Triggers sweating in response to heat or PM: Ghrelin increases hunger, while leptin decreases cold. it; blood sugar levels signal satiety. BM: Seeking food based on hunger cues and Preoptic Area environmental availability. It is a specific hypothalamic area critical for thermal Example: Eating when feeling hungry, even when food regulation. is not readily available. It integrates information from the body regarding temperature. Eating Behavior Example: Signals autonomic responses to cool or warm D: It is a decision influenced by social and the body. environmental factors. PM: The activation of brain regions related to reward Neural Pathways and motivation (e.g. hypothalamus, limbic system). These are pathways connecting the hypothalamus with BM: Choosing what to eat based on craving, dietary the autonomic nervous system. habits, or social situations. It coordinates behavioral and physiological responses Example: Selecting high-calorie foods at a party to temperature changes. despite knowing healthier options available. Example: Activation of sympathetic nervous system for heat conservation. Thirst and Hydration Fever Thirst Regulation D: Physiological mechanisms to signal dehydration and Definition the need for water. It is a temporary increase in body temperature as a PM: Osmoreceptors detect changes in blood response to infection or illness. osmolality: angiotensin II promotes thirst. It often indicates the body’s attempt to fight off BM: Seeking water or hydrating beverages when pathogens. feeling thirsty. Example: Body temperature rises to enhance immune Example: Drinking water after exercising or feeling function. thirsty after drinking salty foods Mechanisms Drinking Behavior It is induced by pyrogens (fever-inducing substances). D: It is influenced by environmental cues and It alters the set point in the hypothalamus to increase availability of water. temperature. PM: Brain’s reward pathways activate when consuming Example: Bacterial toxins trigger the release of preferred drinks. cytokines that induce fever. BM: Choosing beverages based on thirst or social settings. Benefits Example: Opting for soda at a party or water during Fever can enhance the efficiency of immune responses. exercise It slows down the growth of pathogens and increases metabolism. Stress Responses Example: Higher temperatures can improve the activity of immune cells. Stress Regulation D: It is the physiological and behavioral responses to Temperature Regulation stressors. PM: Activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal Autonomic responses like sweating or shivering to (HPA) axis releases stress hormones like cortisol. adjust body temperature. BM: Engaging in coping behaviors, such as exercises or Hypothalamus detects termperature changes and seeking social support activates sweating or shivering. Example: Exercising to relieve stress after a Seeking shade or wearing appropriate clothing based challenging day on temperature. Example: Sweating on a hot day or wearing a jacket in Sleep Regulation cold weather. Sleep-Wake Cycle BM: Setting a regular bedtime and creating a D: It is the combination of physiological signals and conducive sleep environment behavioral cues influencing sleep patterns. Example: Going to bed at the same time each night to PM: Melatonin release in response to darkness improve sleep quality. promotes sleepiness, circadian rhythms regulate sleep-wake cycles Chapter 10: Reproductive Behaviors Hormonal Influence on reproduction It is detected by the vomeronasal organ and processed in the brain to influence social and sexual behaviors. Role of Hormones Attraction is often influenced by scent and hormonal Hormones regulate sexual development, behavior, and signals. reproduction. Example: Female menstrual synchrony observed in Estrogen, testosterone, and progesterone influence close living arrangements. sexual behavior and reproductive cycles. Hormonal changes may affect mate selection and Parental Behavior sexual receptivity. Example: Female primates who increased sexual Maternal and Paternal Investment behavior during ovulation. Investment by parents in offspring to enhance survival and reproductive success. Sex Differentiation Hormones like oxytocin and prolactin promote It is the process by which individuals develop male or nurturing and caregiving behaviors. female characteristics. Engaging in activities that promote offspring The SRY gene on the Y chromosome influences male development and survival. development; estrogen influences female development. Example: A mother bird feeding her chicks; fathers Socialization and environmental factors contribute to providing protection gender roles. Example: Males typically exhibit more competitive Mating Strategies behaviors than females. Monogamous vs. Polygamous Brain Mechanisms of Reproduction Different mating strategies based on social and environmental contexts. Hypothalamus Influenced by evolutionary pressures and hormonal It is the key brain region involved in regulating factors. reproductive behaviors. Social and cultural factors shape mating behaviors and It produces gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) partner selection. that affects hormone release from the pituitary gland. Example: Monogamous pair bonds in some bird species. It influences mating behavior and sexual motivation Polygamous structures in others. through neural circuits. Example: Activation of hypothalamic areas during Influences on Orientation mating behavior. Factors influencing sexual orientation, including genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences. Medial Preoptic Area (MPOA) Prenatal hormone exposure may influence sexual It is critical for sexual motivation, particularly in orientation development. males. Social experiences and cultural norms shape individual The integration of sensory input and hormonal signals sexual preferences. promote mating behavior. Example: Differences in mating preferences and It is responsible for the pursuit of sexual partners and behaviors among individuals copulation. Example: Increased sexual motivation after exposure Cultural Influences on Mating Strategies to potential mates. Social Norms Sexual Attraction Variations in sexual behavior based on cultural beliefs, practices, and societal norms. Pheromones Cultural attitudes toward sexuality can affect These are chemical signals that influence attraction physiological responses and health. and reproductive behavior. Behavioral expressions of sexuality are often shaped by cultural expectations.  Example: Different attitudes toward premarital sex Gender identity across various cultures. It is a person’s internal sense of their own gender, Sexual Practices which may or may not correspond to their biological sex. Hormonal influences during development may affect Diversity in Practices gender identity formation. Variations in sexual practices and preferences among Social experiences and cultural narratives shape one’s individuals and cultures. understanding and expression of gender identity. Physiological responses to sexual stimuli can vary Example: Transgender individuals may transition to based on preferences and practices. align their gender identity with their gender expression. Exploration of sexual practices influenced by curiosity, education, and societal acceptance. Types ofSexual Orientation Example: Kinks, fetishes, and diverse expressions of sexual intimacy among individuals. Heterosexual It is the attraction to individuals of the opposite Sexual Orientation gender. It is typically associated with traditional gender roles Definition and expectations. It refers to the pattern of emotional, romantic, or It is often influenced by societal norms and personal sexual attraction one has towards individuals of the same or experiences. different gender. Example: A man attracted to women or the inverse. It is influenced by genetic, hormonal, and environmental factors during development. Homosexual Cultural and societal norms influence acceptance and It is the attraction to individuals of the same gender. expression of sexual orientation. Research suggests potential genetic and hormonal Example: Heterosexual, homosexual, and bisexual influences. orientations observed in humans. Cultural acceptance can impact the expression of this orientation. Biological Influences Example: A man attracted to men or a woman Genetic predispositions and prenatal hormone levels attracted to women. may play a role in determining sexual orientation. Hormonal influences during critical developmental Bisexual period affect brain structures related to sexual orientation. It is the attraction to individuals of both genders. Early life experiences and social interactions can Hormonal influences may affect the range of shape sexual preferences. attractions. Example: Research suggests a higher prevalence of Personal exploration and acceptance of diverse sexual homosexual orientation in individuals with older brothers. influences. Example: A person attracted to both men and women. Psychosocial Influences - Environmental Factors Pansexual Early life experiences and social interactions can It is the attraction to individuals regardless of their shape sexual preferences. gender identity. The social environment can influence the acceptance It may involve broad attraction influenced by of one’s sexual orientation. personality rather than gender. Cultural norms and peer influences affect individual It emphasizes emotional and romantic connections choices and identities. over gender. Example: Acceptance or rejection of sexual Example: A person attracted to others based on orientation based on family and cultural beliefs. personality and compatibility, regardless of gender. Cultural Influences - Societal Norms Asexual Cultural beliefs and practices impact the expression It is the lack of sexual attraction to others, may still and acceptance of different orientations. experience romantic attraction. Varies widely between cultures; influencing Less research on the physiological basis; may involve physiological and psychological responses. different hormonal or psychological factors. Cultural acceptance can shape an individual's comfort Individuals may seek emotional or romantic in expressing their orientation. connections without sexual involvement. Variations in attitudes toward LGBTQ+ individuals Example: A person who enjoys romantic relationships across different societies, but does not feel sexual attraction.  Acceptance and identify Individuals may navigate personal and social implications of revealing their orientation. Coming Out Example: A person revealing their sexual orientation It is the process of accepting and publicly declaring to friends or family. one’s sexual orientation. Psychological readiness and societal acceptance can influence this process.