Psych 101 Exam 2 PDF

September 13, 2024 Chapter 4: States of consciousness What is consciousness? (4.1) - Consciousness- awareness of internal and external stimuli such as feelings of hunger and pain or detection of light - Wakefulness- high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior - Sleep-...

September 13, 2024 Chapter 4: States of consciousness What is consciousness? (4.1) - Consciousness- awareness of internal and external stimuli such as feelings of hunger and pain or detection of light - Wakefulness- high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior - Sleep- low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness Biological rhythms - Biological rhythm- an internal cycle of biological activity including: - Fluctuation of body temperature - An individual's menstrual cycle - Levels of alertness - Circadian rhythm- a biological rhythm that occurs approximately 24 hours - Generated by the Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) - The sleep wake cycle is linked to our environments natural light dark cycle - What controls our biological rhythm? - The hypothalamus Melatonin and sleep regulation - Our sleep-wake cycle is also regulated by other factors such as the hormone melatonin - Melatonin release is stimulated by darkness, making us sleepy, and inhibited by daylight - Released by the pineal gland - Sleep regulation- the brains control of switching between sleep and wakefulness Disruption of normal sleep - Certain circumstances can throw off our circadian rhythm - Jet lag- symptoms resulting from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our environment - Symptoms can include fatigue, sluggishness, irritability and insomnia - Rotating shift work- a work schedule that changes from early to late on a daily/weekly basis - Can result in persistent feelings of exhaustion and agitation, sleeping problems can lead to signs of depression and anxiety Sleep deprivation - Sleep rebound- a sleep deprived individual will tend to take a shorter time to fall asleep during subsequent opportunities for sleep - Sleep debt- result of insufficient sleep on a chronic basis What is sleep (4.2)  - Sleep is a state marked by relatively low physical activity and is reduced sense of awareness - Sleep is associated with the following the secretion and regulation of many hormones including: - Melatonin - Follicle stimulating hormone - Luteinizing hormone - Growth hormone Why do we sleep - Adaptive function (evolutionary hypothesis) - 1. Sleep is essential to restore resources that are expended during the day - 2. Sleep is an adaptive response to predatory risks, which increase in darkness - There is little evidence to support these explanations - Cognitive function - Focuses on sleeps importance for cognitive function and memory formation - Sleep deprivation results in disruptions in cognition and memory deficits - These impairments become more severe as the amount of sleep deprivation increases - Slow wave sleep appears to be essential for effective memory formation Stages of sleep (4.3) Brainwaves during sleep - Brain wave activity changes dramatically across the different stages of sleep - Alpha- relatively low frequency, relatively high amplitude, synchronized - Theta- low frequency, moderately low amplitude - Delta- low frequency, high amplitude, desynchronized NREM sleep: stages 1 and 2 - Stage 1 - Traditional phase occurring between wakefulness and sleep - Rates of respiration and heartbeat slow down - Stage 2 - The body goes into deep relaxation - Characterized by the appearance of both sleep spindles and K-complexes - Sleep spindles- rapid burst of high frequency brainwaves - K-complexes- very high amplitude pattern of brain activity NREM sleep: stage 3 - Known as slow wave sleep - Respiration and heart rate slow down further Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep - Rapid eye movements  - Paralysis of voluntary muscles - Brain waves are similar to those seen during wakefulness - REM rebound Dreams - Sigmund freud: -Saw dreams as a way to gain access to the unconscious Manifest content- the actual content of the dream Latent content- the hidden meaning of the dream - Carl Jung: believed that certain symbols in dreams reflected universal archetypes regardless of culture or location. Believed that certain symbols in dreams reflected universal archetypes regardless of culture or location. - Cartwright & Hibson: Dreams may represent life events that are important to the dreamer. Dreaming may represent a state of protoconsciousness or a virtual reality - Lucid dreams- certain aspects of wakefulness are maintained during a dreaming state *you realize that you are dreaming* September 16, 2024 Sleep problems and disorders (4.4) Insomnia - Defined by difficulty of falling or staying asleep, for at least 3 nights a week, for at least one month - Contributing factors include: -Age -Drug use -Exercise -Mental status -Bedtime routines - Treatment: -Stress management techniques -Cognitive behavioral therapy, which focus on cognitive processes and problem behaviors Parasomnias - Sleepwalking: - Sleeper engages in relatively complex behaviors that can range from wandering around the house Usually occurs during slow wave sleep - REM sleep behavior disorder: Occurs when the muscle paralysis associated with REM sleep does not occur Includes high levels of physical activity during REM sleep Often treated with clonazepam - Resting leg syndrome:  -Involves uncomfortable sensations in the legs when trying to fall asleep that are relieved by moving the legs Can be treated with a variety of medications - Night terrors: -Sleeper experiences a sense of panic and may scream or attempt to escape Sleep apnea - Occurs when individuals stop breathing during their sleep, usually for 10-20 seconds or longer - 1. Obstructive- airway becomes blocked, and air is prevented from entering the lungs - 2. Central- CNS fails to initiate breaths - Treatment can include a continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) device which pumps air into the persons airways Sudden infant death syndrome - Occurs when an infant stops breathing during sleep and dies - Infants younger than 12 months are at the highest risk - Contributing factors: - Premature birth -Smoking within the home -Hyperthermia Narcolepsy - Involves an irresistible urge to fall asleep during waking hours - Shares many features of REM sleep including: - Cataplexy- loss of muscle tone while awake or in some cases complete paralysis of the voluntary muscles - Hypnagogic hallucinations- vivid, dream like hallucinations - Treatment- psychomotor stimulant drugs Substance use and abuse (4.5): substance use disorder - Substance use disorder is a compulsive pattern of drug use despite negative consequences - Physiological dependence- involves changes in normal bodily functions and withdrawal upon cessation of use - Psychological dependence- emotional need for the drug - Tolerance- occurs when a person requires more and more of a drug to achieve effects previously experienced at lower doses - Withdrawal- negative symptoms experienced when drug use is discontinued Drug categories - Antipsychotics - Stimulants - Depressants  - Hallucinogens September 18, 2024 Depressants - Depressants- drugs that suppress the central nervous system activity - Include: -Alcohol -Barbiturates -Benzodiazepines - Alcohol: -Decreases reaction time and visual activity -Lowers levels of alertness -Reduces behavioral control Stimulants - Stimulants- increase overall levels of neural activity - Include: - Cocaine - Amphetamine - MDMA - Side effects using stimulants can include nausea, elevated blood pressure, increased heart rate, feelings of anxiety, hallucinations and paranoia. Nicotine and caffeine - Caffeine: - Increases levels of alertness and arousal - Involves antagonizing adenosine activity - Nicotine: - Most commonly used in tobacco products like cigarettes, chewing tobacco, or e-cigarettes - Interacts with acetylcholine receptors Opioids - Opioids- serve as analgesics (decrease pain) through their effects on the endogenous opioid neurotransmitter system - Opioids have potent pain killing effects and are often abused - Includes: - Heroin - Morphine - Methadone - Codeine Hallucinogens - Hallucinogens- cause changes in sensory and perceptual experiences  - Includes: - Marijuna - Mescaline - LSD PCP - Ketamine - Variable with regards to the specific neurotransmitter systems they affect Other states of consciousness (4.6) hypnosis - Hypnosis- an extreme focus on the self that involves suggested changes of behavior and experience - Has been used to draw out information believed to be buried in someone's memory - Uses include pain management, treatment of depression and anxiety, quitting smoking and weight loss the act of being fully aware in the present moment which can be achieved through focusing on a single target (breath) Other states of consciousness: meditation - Meditation- the act of being fully aware in the present moment which can be achieved through focusing on a single target (breath) - Mediation involve relaxed, yet focused awareness - Shows promise in stress management, sleep quality, pain management and treatment of mood and anxiety disorder Sensation and perception (5.1) Sensation - Sensation- when a sensory information is detected by a sensory receptor - Transduction- conversion of sensory stimulus energy into action potentials - Absolute threshold- the minimum amount of a stimulus needed for us to notice it 50% of the time - Example of absolute threshold: - A candle flame seen at 30 miles on a clear, dark night - The tick of a watch under quiet conditions at 20 feet - Difference threshold- the minimum amount of change in a stimulus needed to detect a difference - Just noticeable difference - Changes depending on the stimulus intensity Perception - Bottom up processing- basic sensory features are analyzed and recombined *stubbing your toe - Top down processing- perception influenced by knowledge, experience, expectation, and motivations *you see the chair you have stubbed your toe on before and you avoid it to make sure it does not happen again September 20, 2024 Gestalt psychology - Gestalt- form or pattern - A whole can be more than the sum of its parts - Pattern perception- our ability to discriminate among different figures and shapes - Perceptual hypothesis- what we see is a reflection of what we expect to see Perception - The way sensor information is organized, interpreted and consciously experienced - Sensory adaptation- not perceiving stimuli that have been relatively constant over a period of time (you get use to it) - Adapting to the smell of cooking in a kitchen - Attention- influences what stimulus we adapt to - Turning out the music at a party when conversing - Our motivations influence what we attend to - Looking for your child in a crowded venue - Inattentional blindness- the failure to notice something visible due to attending to something else - Signal detection theory- identity a specific stimulus even in a distracting background Waves and wavelengths (5.2) - Amplitude- the distance from the center line to the crest or trough - Wavelength- distance from one peak to the next - Frequency- the number of waves that pass a given point in a given time period Light waves - Wavelength: associated with color (ROYGBIV) - Amplitude: associated with intensity - Gamma ray is the smallest, then x-ray, then ultraviolet, then visible, then infraud, then microwave, then radio Sound - Decibels (dB)- associated with loudness - Pitch- associated with frequency of sound wave - Timbre- a sounds purity Vision (5.3) Cornea - Protective layer, transparent, curved - Prevent particles from going into eyeball - Where light first enters the eye Pupil and iris - Iris- colored ring of muscle - Pupil- opening in the middle of the iris - Size depends of amount of light in environment and or arousal state Lens - Bends the light rays so they can be properly focused on the retina Retina - Light is converted to the electrical impulses for transmission to the brain (photoactivation) - Photoactivation - Photochemical reaction - Occurs when light hits photoreceptors in retina - Fovea- a small indentation in the retina packed with photoreceptors Photoreceptors - Rods- dim light - Cones - bright light - Fine detail - Found near fovea Visual pathway to brain - Rods and cones to ganglion cells - Optic nerve - Through blind spot - Meets at the optic chiasm and separates - Right visual field left side of the brain - To primary visual cortex (occipital lobe) - Initial visual processing - Occipital lobe - What pathway - Object recognition, identification - Where /how pathway - Located of object in space, how it can be interacted with - Parallel processes - Both happen simultaneously Theories of color vision - Trichromacy theory - S-cones > blue - M-cones > green - L- cones > red - Red > green  - Blue > yellow - White > black - After images September 23, 2024 Depth perception: two eyes - Binocular cues- cues to establish our sense of depth with two eyes - Binocular disparity- different retinal images received by each eye Depth perception: one eye - Monocular cues- cues to establish our sense of depth with one eye - Linear perspective- perceiving depth due to the convergence of the parallel lines Hearing (5.4) Anatomy of the auditory system - Outer ear (pinna): - Tympanic membrane - Middle ear (ossicles): - Malleus (hammer) - Incus (anvil) - Stapes (stirrup) - Inner ear: - Cochlea - Semicircular canals - Basilar membrane Pitch perception - Temporal theory- we detect pitch via the frequency with which a neuron fires - Hair cells fire relative to the sound waves frequency - Place theory- different portions of the basilar membrane fire depending on the sound waves frequency - Base= high frequency, tip= low frequency - Both account for our perception of sound Sound localization - Monaural (one-eared) cues: - Each pinna interacts with sound waves differently to pinpoint the source of the sound - Binaural (two-eared) cues: - Interaural level difference: sounds closer to one ear are perceived more loudly than in the opposite ear - Interaural timing difference: sounds closer to one ear are perceived more quickly than in the opposite ear Hearing loss - Deafness: partial or complete inability to hear - Congenital deafness: when one is born without hearing - Conductive hearing loss: inability to deliver sound to the cochlea - Sensorineural hearing loss: failure to transmit neural signals from the cochlea to the brain The other senses (5.5) Taste - 6 basic groupings of taste: - Sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami, fatty - Taste buds - Groupings of taste receptor cells - Life cycle 10-14 days - Chemical info transduction to gustatory cortex Smell (olfaction) - Olfactory receptor cells: odor molecules interact with chemical receptors - Olfactory bulb: tip of the frontal lobe where olfactory nerves begin - Pheromones: chemical messages sent by some species Touch: four types of receptors - Meissner's corpuscles: pressure and low frequency vibrations - Pacinian corpuscles: transient pressure and higher frequency vibrations - Merkel's disks: light pressure - Ruffini corpuscles: detect stretch Touch perception - Thermoception: temperature perception - Nociception: signals potential harm and/ or pain - inflammatory pain- signals tissue damage - Neuropathic pain- pain from damage to neurons in the PNS or CNS - Congenital analgesia- a rare genetic disorder where one cannot feel pain The vestibular system - Vestibular sense- our ability to maintain balance and body posture - Proprioception- perception of body position - Kinesthesia- perception of the body's movement through space Chapter 6 (learning) Reflexes and instincts - Reflexes: motor or neural reactions to a specific stimulus in the environment - Instincts innate behaviors that are triggered by a broad range of events - More complex than reflexes Learning Learning- relatively permanent change in behavior that is brought about by experience September 25, 2024 Classical conditioning (6.2) - Type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after being paired with a stimulus Classical conditioning paradigm - USC: unconditioned stimulus: stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been earned - UCR: unconditioned response: a response (to the UCS) that is natural and needs no training - CS: Conditioned stimulus: a once neutral stimulus that has been paired with an UCS to bring about a response formerly caused by the UCS - CR: conditioned response: a response (to the CS) that after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus Pavlov's salivating dogs (1927) - Before conditioning the ringing of a bell does not bring about salviatin making the bell a neutral stimulus - In contrast, meat naturally brings out salivation making the meat an unconditioned stimulus and salviaton an unconditioned response - During conditioning the bell is rung just before the presentation of the meat - Eventually the ringing of the bell alone brings about salivation Example - Luna hates the dentist, she's so afraid that even when she's sitting in the waiting room she gets all nervous and jittery when she hears the dentist drill. UCR is fear and nervous. UCS is the pain of drilling. CS is the sound of dentist drill. Second order conditioning - Higher order conditioning0 an established conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus so that eventually the new stimulus also elicits the conditioned response, without the initial conditioned stimulus being presented. - In the end the cat learns to associate the cabinet door with the electric can opener and therefore with food Other types of conditioned responses - Taste aversion conditioning - Flavors associated with certain foods/drinks can be associated with unpleasant symptoms - Fear conditioning and phobias - Cues associated with emotional trauma Processes in classical conditioning - Acquisition- the initial period of learning when an organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus - Extinction- a decrease in the conditioned response when the UCS is no longer presented with the CS - Spontaneous recovery- the return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period Distinguishing between stimuli - Organisms need to be able to distinguish between different stimuli in order to respond appropriately - Stimulus discrimination- when an organism learns to respond differently to various stimuli that are similar - Stimulus generalization- when an organism demonstrates the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus - Class conditioning can also lead to habituation - As a stimulus is repeated we learn not to focus our attention on it Clicker questions 1. Approximately how long is the course of a circadian rhythm cycle? - 24 hours 2. Which hormone is important for regulating our sleep-wake cycles? - Melatonin 3. Which brain waves are associated with stage 3 sleep? - Delta 4. Brain waves during REM sleep are most similar to? - Wakefulness 5. Which brain area is responsible for making melatonin? - Pineal gland 6. Which sleep stage is associated with sleep spindles and k-complexes? - Stage 2  7. Which population is at the greatest risk of SIDS? - Infants younger than 12 months 8. What concept is at work when a person has to take more and more substance to feel its effects? - Tolerance 9. Alcohol is an example of what type of substance? - Depressant 10. Which of the following involves extreme focus on the self? - Mediation 11. Example of bottom-up processing - Stubbing your toe 12. What defines frequency? - Number of waves that pass a given point in a specific time period 13. Rods are useful_ cones are useful in_ - Dim, bright 14. What are the parts of the middle ear? - Malleus, incus, stapes 15. Which structure is responsible for processing the initial signals of smell in the brain? - Olfactory bulb 16. Which type of pain results from damage to the neurons in the peripheral or central nervous system? - Neuropathic pain 17. Our ability to maintain posture and balance is our - Vestibular sense Quizzes Chapter 4 quiz 1. Most people are awake during the day and asleep at night because their ________ cycles are aligned with the outside world. - Circadian 2. Bev likes to be up late at night and sleep in; Caleb likes to wake up with the sun and go to bed early. A psychologist would say they have different ________. - Chronotypes 3. Melatonin release from the pineal gland is stimulated by ________ and inhibited by ________. - Darkness, light 4. Which researcher believed that dreams simply reflect life events that are important to the dreamer? - Rosalind Cartwright 5. Stage 1 sleep is characterized by a predominance of ________ wave activity in the brain. - Alpha 6. Which of the following is a symptom of REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD)? - Kicking and punching while asleep 7. Crack is regarded as more addictive than cocaine because it is ________. - smokable, so it reaches the brain more quickly 8. Tayla smokes marijuana. At first, just a few inhalations were enough to cloud her mind. Over time, she needs to smoke more and more to achieve the same effect. This is an example of ________. - Tolerance 9. Mescaline is considered a(n) ________ drug because it results in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences. - Hallucinogenic 10. Cocaine is considered a ________ drug because it tends to increase overall levels of neural activity. - Stimulant 11. Which psychological perspective might advance the argument that our sleep patterns evolved as an adaptive response to predatory risks, which are higher during periods of darkness? - Evolutionary 12. Mohammed is sleeping. His eyelids are quivering because his eyes are darting around. Mohammed is probably experiencing ________ sleep. - REM 13. Shoresh suggests that Ted cluck like a chicken during the hypnosis not because he is experiencing an altered state of consciousness but because he is playing the role of a hypnotized person he then clucks like a chicken. This is a good example of the ________ theory of hypnosis. - Social cognitive  14. Mona lives on the east coast of the USA. She takes an overnight flight to the west coast to visit with family for a month; when she arrives she is fatigued, sluggish, and irritable. For the next week or so she has trouble sleeping. Mona is probably suffering from ________. - Jet lag 15. Tariq depends on cigarettes to relieve his stress, and he experiences an intense urge to smoke while in stressful situations. What does this exemplify? - psychological dependence 16. Which psychodynamic theorist proposed the idea of a collective unconscious that is shared by all members of the human species? - Carl Jung 17. Cataplexy is a symptom associated with ________. - Narcolepsy 18. What occurs during stage 1 sleep? - Both our respiration and heartbeat slow down. Chapter 5 quiz 1. What has research shown about processing subliminal messages? - In laboratory settings, people can process and respond to information outside of their awareness. 2. Light waves are first transmitted through the ________ at the front of the eye and enter an opening called the ________ before shining onto the retina. - Corena, pupil 3. What does the place theory of pitch perception suggest? - Receptors on different portions of the basilar membrane are sensitive to sounds of different frequencies. 4. Participants were instructed to focus on either white or black objects, disregarding the other color. When a red cross passed across the screen, about one third of the subjects did not notice it. This research protocol demonstrates which concept? - Inattentional blindness 5. Ronaldo was born without the ability to experience pain, though he can perceive temperature differences and changes in pressure. What is his condition called? - Congenital analgesia 6. Sarit is at a bar full of music, chatter, and laughter. He gets involved in an interesting conversation with a woman named Mona, and he tunes out all the background noise. Sarit’s friend, Karen, taps him on the shoulder and asks what song just played on the jukebox. Sarit says he doesn’t know, even though he is sitting right next to the jukebox and is familiar with popular music. This illustrates the role that ________ plays in what is sensed versus what is perceived. - Attention 7. What term describes the continuation of a visual sensation after removal of the stimulus? - Afterimage 8. ________ refers to the way that sensory information is interpreted and consciously experienced; ________ refers to what happens when sensory information is detected by a sensory receptor. - Perception, sensation 9. Vinnie is standing on one leg with his arms in the air. The ________ sense helps keep him balanced so he has less chance of falling over. - Vestibular 10. Tyrahn’s rods do not transform light into nerve impulses as easily and efficiently as they should, so he has trouble seeing in dim light. This is called ________ blindness. - Night 11. Ravon is deaf. He was born without the ability to hear, and has never experienced an auditory stimulus. When people write using “sound” type words like “loud,” “soft,” and “quiet,” he sometimes has difficulty understanding what they are trying to convey. Ravon has ________ deafness. - Congenital 12. Imagine yourself in a dark classroom reading PowerPoint slides. If an audience member were to check the internet using her cell phone and causing her screen to light up, chances are that many people would notice the change in illumination in the classroom. However, if the same thing happened in a brightly lit classroom during a discussion, very few people would notice. The cell phone brightness does not change, but its ability to be detected as a change in illumination varies dramatically between the two contexts. This is an example of ________. - Weber’s law 13. Why are olfaction and gustation called chemical senses? - They have sensory receptors that respond to molecules in food we eat or in the air we breathe 14. How does a cochlear implant enable the deaf to hear? - It receives incoming sound information and directly stimulates the auditory nerve to transmit information to the brain. 15. In a person whose eyes work in the usual fashion, the ________ will focus images perfectly on a small indentation in the back of the eye known as the ________. - Lens, fovea 16. The amplitude of a wave is the height of a wave as measured from the highest point on the wave________ to the ________ - Crest or trough; center line 17. Some neurons can only generate action potentials up to a certain speed, and no faster. This fact is a limitation of the ________ theory of pitch perception. - Temporal 18. ________ amplitudes are associated with ________ sounds. - Higher, louder 19. Wesley is in a movie theater with no windows—the only light is low illumination from the emergency lights on the floor. Which photoreceptors  will be most useful to Wesley as he attempts to leave the theater? - Rods 20. As you are talking to a friend on your cell phone, you might find that you can’t hear them because they are speaking very softly. If you ask them to “speak up,” from a physical perspective you are asking them to ________ of the sound waves they are producing. - Increase the amplitude 21. Petra walks into a brightly lit Psychology lab to participate in an experiment involving the ability to perceive the colors of the rainbow. Which photoreceptors will be most useful during this experiment? - Cones 22. Catherine is at a crowded baseball game when she loses track of her son, Nick. Despite the loud cheering and noise of the crowd, she can pinpoint his location when he calls for her because she can distinguish the sound of his voice from the all the other voices. This illustrates ________ theory. - Signal detection 23. Which of these is not one of the structures that comprises the outer ear? - The basilar membrane