Biology 11 Exam Review PDF

Biology 11 Exam Review Nutrition 1. Function of water: a. Transports nutrients into cells b. Forms essential body fluids c. Eliminates waste (ex: mucus and sweat) d. Lubricates tissues and joints 2. What are biological molecules? What do they do? a) Made up of...

Biology 11 Exam Review Nutrition 1. Function of water: a. Transports nutrients into cells b. Forms essential body fluids c. Eliminates waste (ex: mucus and sweat) d. Lubricates tissues and joints 2. What are biological molecules? What do they do? a) Made up of hydrogen, carbon, and one other atom b) Provides energy, regulates cellular activities, builds and repairs tissues c) Macronutrients: Lipids, protein, carbohydrates (large amounts required in body) d) Micronutrients: minerals and vitamins (small amounts required in body) 3. What are the 4 main types of Biological molecules? 1. Carbohydrates - provides body with energy Made of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen a) Simple sugars (mono and disaccharides) b) Complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides) 2. Lipids - stores energy for later use Made of glycerol (3 carbons) + fatty acid chain attached to each glycerol 2 of each + phosphate makes up phospholipids (cell membrane) 3. Proteins - grows and repairs body (building blocks) Made of amino acid yet act like enzymes ○ Enzymes: speeds up chemical reactions in body 4. Minerals and Vitamins Minerals Vitamins Calcium - forms bones, A - good vision, healthy skin conducts nerve signals, and bone contracts muscles, and clots B - metabolizes carbohydrates, blood growth and muscle tone Iron - produces hemoglobin C - Boosts immune system, Magnesium - supports enzyme healthy bones, gums, teeth,  functions producing protein vessels Potassium - conducts nerve D - Absorbs calcium and signals, contracts muscles FORMS the bone Sodium - balances body fluids, E - Strengthening red cell conducts nerve signals membranes Digestive system 1. Define digestion Digestion: the break down of large food particles into smaller components 2. What are the parts of the digestive system? a. Accessory organs (organs that don’t carry food) - structures aiding digestion i. Liver (produces bile and detoxify blood from stomach), pancreas (releases enzymes into duodenum to activate enzymes and change pH), appendix (contains helpful bacteria and absorbs nutrients) b. The digestive tract (organs that contain food) i. Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine, rectum 3. What are the 3 parts of the mouth? a. Teeth: Deciduous (baby) teeth and permanent teeth (32 total) b. Tongue: a strong muscle that pushes food to esophagus that contains taste buds i. helps mold/smooth food into a soft mass called bolus c. Salivary glands - produces saliva to begin chemical digestion of food 4. What is the esophagus? Esophagus: a muscular tube connecting mouth to stomach that pushes bolus through peristalsis. Epiglottis blocks trachea from getting food down airway Lubricated by cells that hold mucins to make a smooth way for food 5. What are the components of the stomach? a) Esophageal sphincter - ring of muscle which controls entrance of stomach b) Pyloric sphincter - keeps food in the stomach (exit) c) Stomach - muscular organ where food is temporarily stored i) Rugae - the folded walls of stomach that allows organ to expand ii) Gastric glands - secretes gastric juice (for chemical digestion) GASTRIC JUICE = HCl acid, enzymes, salt, water, and mucus The THREE types of cells in this juice:  1. Parietal cells: holds HCl + activates pepsin 2. Chief cells: holds pepsinogen (HCl removes part of molecule, leaving it with pepsin) a. Digests proteins into smaller polypeptide chains 3. Mucus: secreting cells (coats protective inner lining) 6. What methods does the stomach use to break down food? a) Chemically: the usage of enzymes and gastric juice b) Mechanically: physical usage of muscles in the stomach or teeth 7. Parts of the intestine a) Small intestine (absorption of nutrients) has 3 parts: i) Duodenum (chemical digestion)Receives: Bile - Produced in liver - Physically breaks down fats Digestive enzymes - Produced in pancreas - Lipase becomes lipids - Proteases becomes proteins - Carbohydrase becomes carbohydrates Sodium bicarbonate - Produced in pancreas - neutralizes acid (raises pH 8) - activates interstitial enzymes ii) Jejunum (absorption of nutrient starts) iii) Ileum (absorption of nutrient ends) b) Absorption in the small intestine: i) Nutrient absorption: Blood vessels are interlaced to absorb nutrients into the capillaries of the villi and carried along the portal vein to the liver for processing ii) Fat absorption: glycerol and fatty acids enter the lacteal and is carried through the lymphatic system iii) Mucosa: the epithelial lining that has the villi and the microvilli 1) Villi - finger-like projections that contains many blood vessels 2) Microvilli: extensions of cell membrane c) Big intestine - absorbs water from indigestible food creating feces and FOOD MOST TIME SPENT HERE i) Contains bacteria that helps synthesize vitamin B and K (methane)  ii) Ileocecal sphincter - The entrance from small to big intestine Respiratory system 1. What is the importance of gas exchange? Gas exchange systems allow organisms to obtain oxygen and get rid of CO2. 2. What are the requirements of gas exchange? Moist membrane Delicate membranes should be protected Needs a constant flow of oxygen across exchange membranes Needs a way to transport gases to all cells in the organism 3. How do microorganisms exchange gas? Diffusion - the movement of molecules from high to low concentration. 4. How do terrestrial organisms exchange gas? Secretes moisture from inside the body Highly vascularized (lots of vessels that allow blood to carry oxygen around the body) 5. What is breathing? A mechanism based on a pressure system 6. Explain how we breathe Pleural membrane - the layer before outer layer of the lung that pull elastic tissues with them while breathing Inhaling Exhaling 1. Increase in volume (air) means 1. Decrease in volume means higher lower pressure pressure 2. Ribs move up and out 2. Ribs fall 3. Diaphragm and external muscles 3. Diaphragm and external muscles contracts (moves down) relaxes and internal intercostals contract  7. Describe the journey of air through the body a. Nasal cavity - smells, filters, moistens air b. Trachea - rings of cartilage (pathway for air) i. Epiglottis - cover for food ii. Larynx - voice box c. Bronchi and bronchiole i. Bronchi further branches off into bronchioles d. Alveoli - site of gas exchange (surrounded by capillaries) 8. How is gas exchanged in the capillary? 1. Hemoglobin attracts oxygen to the red blood cells. HB is made of 4 polypeptide chains + 4 iron atoms 2. Half of CO2 is carried by the lungs to the exchange site (capillary) 3. The other half is dissolved in the plasma to make the blood acidic Circulatory system 1. What are the 3 types of circulation? a. Coronary - supplies heart with oxygenated blood b. Pulmonary - carries deoxygenated blood to lungs c. Systemic - carries oxygenated blood to whole body 2. What are the components of the blood a) Plasma (55%) - fluid where blood cells are suspended (mostly made of water with hormones, glucose, and fats dissolved) b) Erythroblasts (45%) - Function: red blood cells that gas transportation. (made in bone marrow where it goes under mitosis resulting in one red blood cell or erythroblasts) c) Platelets - blood clotting (supports damaged walls) d) Leukocytes - white blood cells (body defense and immunity) i) Granulocytes - has tiny granules in the cytoplasm 1) Neutrophil (devours bacteria) 2) Eosinophil (kills parasitic worms) 3) Basophil (releases inflammatory chemicals and histamine) ii) Agranular - has few granules in the cytoplasm 1) Monocytes/macrophages - large nucleus that function as phagocytes (kill/clean cells) 2) Lymphocytes - reacts to exposure to antigens (a) B cells = produce/secrete antibodies  (b) T cells = produce and wear proteins in their membrane (memory cells of past infection) 3. What is the importance of blood? a. Transports nutrients and gas b. Protects body from bacteria, infections, and viruses 4. Describe the blood vessels a. Arteries - carries blood AWAY from heart (located deep in body) i. Vasodilation - dilation of arterioles (increases blood flow) ii. Vasoconstriction -constriction (decreases blood flow) iii. Aorta > arteries > arterioles b. Veins - carries blood TO the heart i. Contains a valve in the vessel to prevent backflow of blood ii. Blood moves by skeletal muscle contraction and blood pressure c. Capillaries - gas exchange site i. Only endothelium is left 5. Describe the process of gas exchange 1. Diffusion (filtration) - oxygen (nutrients) out from arteriole side 2. Interstitial fluid - created by water + ions that were able to go through the pores (contained extracellular fluid) 3. Absorption - CO2 (waste) through the venule side through the pores and gaps between cell walls 4. Bulk flow has 2 driving forces that enables diffusion and absorption a) Hydrostatic pressure - greater blood pressure in vessels rather than outside; driving blood solutes out of the capillaries b) Osmotic force - difference of protein concentration (vessel has higher concentration meaning it draws water into blood vessels) 5. The remaining 15% of interstitial fluid is transported by lymphatic system 6. What is the lymphatic system? Lymphatic system: a drainage system that removes excess fluid from the body (a subsystem of immune and circulatory) 7. What is blood pressure and pulse? Pulse: ventricular contraction to pump blood in the arteries Blood pressure: pressure on artery walls a) Systolic pressure - during ventricular contraction b) Diastolic pressure - during ventricular relaxation  8. Explain the conducting system of the heart 1. SA nodes fire impulse which spread through the walls of R + L atria, causing them to contract (produces heartbeat) 2. The impulse travels to the AV node causing the His-Purkinje network conducts impulses from atria to ventricles (forces blood to the lungs and body) 3. Repeats cycle 9. What controls the SA node? Medulla oblongata - controls the impulse of the SA node from the brain Vagus nerve - releases acetylcholine that restricts the SA node Accelerator nerve - releases noradrenaline that stimulate SA node 10. What is the formula for cardiac output? The volume of blood pumped by the heart each minute CO (L/min) = Heart rate (beats/min) x stroke volume (L/beat) 11. Can the heart still beat without the SA node or medulla oblongata? Yes, because the heart muscle is myogenic meaning it doesn’t need external nerve stimuli Genetics 1. What is heredity and genetics? a. Heredity - the passing traits from generation to generation b. Genetics - the study of heredity and inherited characteristics 2. Asexual reproduction Asexual reproduction: a new individual is produced from a single parent through a process called mitosis. The new offspring is an identical genetic copy of the parent. Advantages include: 1. Doesn’t need a mate 2. Genetically identical (no malfunctions) 3. What are the parts of cell genetics? i. Chromosome - located in the nucleus that organizes all the information (made of DNA and protein) (file cabinet) 46 in total i) DNA - the molecule that stores genetic info that gets passed down to next generation of cells (file folder)  1) Contains all the necessary information for development, growth, function, and reproduction. Has two long strings that look like helix and is made up of nucleotides, containing sugar, phosphate, and nitrogen base. ii) Gene - a portion of DNA molecule that carries information for a specific trait (single file in cabinet caring one specific info) iii) Locus - location of gene on a chromosome 4. What is the difference between somatic and germ cells? Somatic cells - both members of each chromosome pair are said to be diploid. This is what makes up muscle, heart, liver cells. ○ 46 diploid chromosomes in total Germ cells - contain only one of each pair called a haploid. This is used for reproduction (one from mom and other from dad) ○ 23 haploid chromosomes in total 5. What are the stages of mitosis? a. Interphase (spends longest time here) i. G1 - cellular content duplicates ii. S (synthesis) - info is officially doubled iii. G2 - double-checks for errors b. Mitosis: i. Prophase - condensation of chromatids/spindle fibers ii. Prometaphase - spindle fibers attach to chromosomes iii. Metaphase - chromosomes line up in the middle iv. Anaphase - centromeres divide and move to opposite poles v. Telophase - nuclear membrane reforms and chromosomes decondense vi. Cytokinesis - Cytoplasm divides to 2 daughter cells with identical genetic information (ONLY ANIMAL CELLS GET CLEAVAGE) 6. The modes of asexual reproduction (cloning) Cloning - producing genetically identical copy of an existing individual’s cells or tissue a) Fragmentation: when fragments of an organism can regrow into an individual (ex: fungi) b) Budding: organism branching off from the mother that can multiply the variety without seed (ex: hydra/yeast) c) Runners: stems that run along the ground that helps with plant’s efficiency (ex: strawberries) d) Cuttings: cutting a portion of a leaf regrowing  e) APPLICATIONS: mass production of plants and livestock, GMO, saving endangered species 7. What is sexual reproduction? Sexual reproduction: reproduction involving 2 parents and union of 2 cells. This is important because it allows diversity through genetic variation. a) Genetic variation - difference in DNA sequences between individuals in a population. i) Parents must produce a haploid cells (ovum and spermatozoa) that results in gametes (sex cells): haploid cells created by the germ cells ii) Gametes are formed through fertilization and zygote (diploid cell formed by union of 2 different gametes from parents.) 8. What are homologous chromosomes? Homologous chromosomes: a pair of chromosomes that are similar in size, structure, and arrangement (locus of info) that goes together. 9. What are the types of chromosomes in mammals? Autosomes - 22 pairs of autosomes chromosomes that pass down genetic traits from parent to child (ex: blue eyes, tall nose, etc.) Sex chromosomes - consists of X and Y (XX = girl and XY = boy) 10. Describe the process of meiosis a. Interphase - Normal diploid cells duplicate b. Prophase - each pair of sister chromatids line up with its homologous chromosomes (synapsis means movement) i. Crossing over (DNA exchange) results in genetic variation and forms a tetrads 1. Tetrads: two chromosomes next to each other c. Metaphase - tetrads line up along equator in pairs d. Anaphase and telophase - homologous pairs are pulled apart. Membranes close in the 2 poles. This is the end of meiosis I i. DOES NOT FORM IDENTICAL NUCLEI e. Meiosis II i. Metaphase has only one line of chromosomes lined up. Not in pairs ii. Anaphase pulls the chromaTIDS away to create 4 cells with haploids inside (resulting in gametes) 11. What is the difference between mitosis and meiosis? Mitosis Meiosis Makes body cells Makes gametes Starts as a diploid Starts as a diploid Prophase: chromosomes condensed Lines up with homologous pairs and crosses over Metaphase: single file line in middle Still in pairs but in the middle Anaphase: pulls chromatids to Pulls chromosomes to opposite poles opposite poles Produces 2 identical cells with diploids Produces 4 different cells (gametes) 12. What is a zygote and fertilization? Zygote: the diploid cell formed by union of 2 gametes (23 + 23 = 46) resulting in a diploid cell. The new organism develops from this cell. Fertilization: 2 gametes united (gametes = a reproductive cell) 13. What is gametogenesis and what are its parts? Gametogenesis - production of gametes (meiosis) in animals Spermatogenesis: one cell produces 4 unique sperms ○ Flagellum - tails of sperm that helps with mobility Oogenesis - only one ovum is produced after meiosis. The remaining 3 are polar bodies 14. Define karyotyping. What is it used for? Karyotyping - the examining of an individual's chromosome profile by fixing cells in metaphase (neatest stage). It is prepared on a microscope stain. Matched with homologous pairs to check for abnormalities in chromosomes (genetic disorders identified by number and structure) 15. What are some mistakes in meiosis? a) Aneuploidy: the result of cells containing too few or many chromosomes i) Caused by disjunction (homologous chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis). Ex: Down syndrome (extra 21) 1) Chromosomes fail to divide in meiosis I = all cells produced are wrong. Chromosomes that fail in meiosis II = ½ healthy  b) Polyploidy: the zygote produced has 3+ full sets of chromosomes. (rare in animals but common in plants) ex: self fertilizing (peas, sunflowers) results in 4n c) Abnormal chromosome structure - occurs due to errors in the cross-over process in meiosis. (mutation - change in the DNA sequence of cell) i) Deletion: a chromosome fragment gets lost (fails to attach to their homologous pair) ii) Duplication: a chromosome fragment attaches to a complete chromosome iii) Inversion: chromosome fragment that attaches to the right homologous, but info is upside down iv) Translocation: a chromosome segment attaches to a NONhomologous chromosome 16. What is an allele and its types? Allele - a specific form of a gene (1 gene = 2 alleles) a) Dominant allele - the allele that is always expressed b) Recessive allele - the allele that only gets expressed when there is no dominant allele 17. Who is Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) A monk in austria that studied bean plants (a pure breed) Cross-pollinated plants with variety (found dominant and recessive) Genes consist of a pair called alleles Zygote receives 2 alleles total during fertilization for each gene 18. What is Mendel's Law of Dominance? When 2 different varieties of alleles are combined, one variety of allele is expressed over the other 19. What is the law of segregation? a) Organisms inherit 2 copies of genes, one from each parent b) Organisms donate only one copy of the gene to their gametes bc the genes separate during gamete formation 20. Genes can consist of… 1. Homozygous dominant (2 dominant alleles) 2. Homozygous recessive (2 recessive alleles) 3. Heterozygous (one of each allele) 21. What is the difference between phenotype and genotype? Phenotype: the physical appearance of individual (expressed in percentage) Genotype: the genetic makeup of an individual (expressed in ratios) 22. What is punnett square? A tool used to determine the probability of outcomes resulting from 2 mates 23. What are the variations in heredity? a) Incomplete dominance (neither has allele dominantes but a mixture) i) Ex: Red and white carnations = pink b) Codominance (both alleles in heterozygous is expressed) i) Ex: checkered chickens: no blending! c) Multiple alleles (2+ types of alleles) i) Ex: blood types (determined by the presence of protein (A or B or none) on the surface of blood cells 1) Antibodies: proteins found in blood which attacks particles recognized as being foreign to body (antigens) 2) AB = universal receptor (can receive any blood type) 3) O = universal donor ii) Lethal alleles (an allele that is fatal when expressed) 1) Ex: creeper chickens (CC = fatal) iii) Linkage (2 genes located in the same chromosome can appear together by migrating in the same gamete.) closer genes together results in a stronger the bond (Ex: red hair and freckles) iv) Sex linkage (genes located on one of the sex chromosomes) 1) X-linked = genetic disorder found in X chromosome linked with a recessive gene (ex: color blindness = recessive, or hemophilia - blood doesn’t clot) 2) Y-linked = phenotypic expression of an allele found in the Y chromosome (disorder more rare - father to son) v) Sex influence (same genotype can be expressed differently in the presence of different genders by sex hormones) 1) Hormones acts like switches for genes 2) Ex: male baldness (both gene and testorone needed) vi) Dihybrid crosses (a cross that involves 2 genes at the same time, each consisting of heterozygous alleles 24. What is the law of independent assortment? If genes are located on the separate chromosomes, they will be inherited differently of one another