A&P Exam Review (Comprehensive Final) PDF

Review for the A&P Exam (Comprehensive Final) The A&P exam covers chapters 3-17 (except 8) plus the extra anatomy appendix lecture in unit 1. Appendix Study all! Chapter 3 – Cells The difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells o Eukaryotic: larger/more complex with specialized...

Review for the A&P Exam (Comprehensive Final) The A&P exam covers chapters 3-17 (except 8) plus the extra anatomy appendix lecture in unit 1. Appendix Study all! Chapter 3 – Cells The difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells o Eukaryotic: larger/more complex with specialized organelles; multicellular organisms are made up of eukaryotic cells o Prokaryotic: smaller; lack most organelles; single-celled organisms Cell figure labeling: o Nucleus (stores DNA/chromatin), nuclear envelope (encloses nucleus), nucleolus (synthesizes ribosomes), nuclear pores (allows substances to enter/exit the nucleus), ribosome (synthesizes proteins), rough endoplasmic reticulum (has ribosomes so makes proteins), smooth endoplasmic reticulum (no ribosomes – synthesizes lipids), Golgi complex (modifies proteins), mitochondria (cellular respiration – makes ATP), cytoskeleton (protein fibers – holds organelles in place) Cytoplasm (fluid with dissolved substances and organelles), extracellular fluid (fluid outside of cells), hydrophobic (water-fearing; lipid-soluble substances – do not dissolve in water), hydrophilic (water-loving; water-soluble substances – polar substances, ions) Plasma membrane: phospholipid bilayer (hydrophilic heads point outwards and hydrophobic tails point inward), selectively permeable (allows only certain substances through) o Hydrophobic or small hydrophilic substances can cross plasma membrane easily (others need help from channel/carrier proteins in the plasma) o Proteins on surface of cell help identify cells as “self” or “foreign” (glycoproteins) Diffusion (substances moving from high to low concentration with no energy), osmosis (water movement from high to low water concentration), active transport (carrier protein/pump uses ATP to move substances from low to high concentration (exocytosis – vesicles move substances out, endocytosis – vesicles move substances in) Chapter 4 – Organization and Regulation of Body Systems Four types of tissue: epithelial (covering, lining organs/cavities – ex. skin epidermis), connective (throughout body), muscle, nervous Connective o Functions: bind, support, transport, energy storage o Fibrous connective tissue: loose, dense o Cartilage (support, structure) o Bone o Blood  Muscle: three types (cardiac, skeletal, smooth) Nervous – definitions: brain, spinal cord, nerves Epithelial o Shapes: squamous (squished/flat), cuboidal (cube-shaped), columnar (column- shaped) o Layers: simple (one layer), stratified (multiple layers) o Definitions: gland (makes and secretes a substance), endocrine (releases hormones into the blood – ex. pituitary gland, thyroid), exocrine (releases substances locally into ducts – ex. salivary glands, sweat glands) Skin o Functions: protection, regulation body temperature, production of vitamin D, sensory perception o Two layers: epidermis (stratified squamous epithelium where outer layers are dead and slough off), dermis (contains blood vessels, organs and nerves) o Hypodermis (adipose) is under the skin o Melanocytes (melanin-producing cells), melanin (pigment that protects from UV radiation), melanoma (cancer of melanocytes) o Hair (warmth; protection), nails (protection) o Sebaceous (oil) glands (make sebum, which moisturizes skin/hair), sweat glands (regulate temperature by cooling) Cavities: o Anterior (front), posterior (back), thoracic (chest), pleural (lungs), pericardial (heart), abdominal (abdomen/pelvic), cranial (brain), spinal (spinal cord) (the diaphragm muscle separates thoracic & abdominal) Membranes: o Mucous (open to the environment; produces mucus – traps pathogens, pollutants, etc.), serous (covers organs/closed cavities), synovial (lines freely movable joints – synovial fluid), meninges (three membranes around the brain and spinal cord) Homeostasis (maintains constant, optimal levels), negative feedback mechanism (turns something off/down – ex. sweating lowers temperature, shivering raises it) and positive feedback mechanism (keeps pushing something in the same direction/turns up the response – ex. oxytocin during childbirth causes more uterine contractions) Chapter 12 – Skeletal System Functions: support, movement, protection, storage of minerals and fat (yellow bone marrow), blood cell production (red bone marrow) Compact bone (dense – in shafts of long bones), spongy bone (has cavities like a sponge – inside ends of long bones), red bone marrow (found in spongy bone), yellow marrow (found inside shafts of long bones) Osteon (structural unit of compact bone), osteocyte (bone cell), osteoblast (build bone), osteoclast (dissolve bone), epiphyseal plate (growth plate – lengthening of long bones; only in children) 2  Axial (head/neck/trunk) vs. appendicular skeleton (appendages/limbs – arms/legs) (which bones belong to which?) Skull and skeleton figure labeling: o Skull, cranium (part of the skull that contains the brain), frontal, parietal, occipital (foramen magnum), temporal, nasal, zygomatic, maxilla, mandible, vertebrae (cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, coccyx), intervertebral disk, rib, sternum, scapula, clavicle, humerus, radius, ulna, carpal, metacarpal, phalanges (both), pubic symphysis, pelvic bones, femur, tibia, fibula, patella, tarsal, metatarsal Fontanel (soft spots/membranes at birth that allow the head to compress during childbirth; allow for brain growth) Pectoral girdle (attaches arms to trunk – scapula, clavicle) and pelvic girdle (attaches legs to trunk – pelvic bones) Suture (non-movable joint between cranial bones), synovial joint (freely movable), arthritis (osteoarthritis – cartilage breaks down from wear and tear – aging, obesity, & rheumatoid – autoimmune disease – immune system attacks synovial joints) Osteoporosis (bone becomes weak; risk factors: age, genetics, females, low calcium/vitamin D) Chapter 13 – Muscular System 3 types of muscle: o Skeletal (voluntary control, striated, multinucleated; found attached to skeleton; needed for movement) o Cardiac (involuntary, striated, one nucleus; found in heart) o Smooth (involuntary, non-striated, one nucleus; found in interior of hollow organs) Antagonistic muscles (when one contracts, the other relaxes; ex. biceps and triceps brachii, quadriceps femoris/hamstrings (biceps femoris)) Muscle figure labeling: o Triceps brachii, pectoralis major, external oblique, rectus abdominis, sartorius, quadriceps femoris, tibialis anterior, biceps brachii, deltoid, trapezius, latissimus dorsi, gluteus maximus, biceps femoris, gastrocnemius Sarcomere (contractile unit of muscle), actin (thin filaments), myosin (thick filaments) Sliding filament model o Neuromuscular junction (where motor neuron meets muscle cell), motor neuron (neuron that stimulates muscle cells), neurotransmitter (chemical released to stimulate muscle cells) o Sarcomeres shorten when the motor neuron stimulates the muscle; calcium allows binding of actin and myosin Chapter 14 – Nervous System Central vs. peripheral nervous system (CNS = brain and spinal cord; peripheral = cranial and spinal nerves) 3  Difference between neurons (transmit electrical signals) and neuroglial cells (support, nourish neurons; ex. myelin sheath; also outnumber neurons) Three types of neurons: sensory (carry signals toward CNS), motor (carry signals away from CNS), interneuron (integrates signals in CNS, determines a response) Sensory receptor (detects stimuli), effector (muscle or gland: responds to stimuli) Dendrites (extensions from cell body that receive signals), cell body (largest portion of neuron, contains organelles), axon (sends electrical signals) Myelin sheaths (around some axons – white matter; speed up signals), Schwann cells (form myelin sheaths in the PNS), nodes of Ranvier (spaces on axons between myelin sheaths) Multiple sclerosis (autoimmune disorder against myelin sheaths, slows electrical signals – causes weakness) Action potential: electrical signal; the first step is depolarization (sodium rushing into cell through ion channels) Synapse (meeting place between two neurons), presynaptic neuron (neuron sending the signal) and postsynaptic neuron (neuron receiving signal) Cerebrospinal fluid (lubricates/protects brain and spinal cord), found in ventricles, central canal (middle of spinal cord), and between the meninges Cerebral cortex (most superficial portion of cerebrum – gray matter), gray matter (unmyelinated parts of neurons), white matter (myelinated axons: deeper inside the brain, but superficial in the spinal cord), sensory (primary somatosensory area), motor (primary motor area), reflex (automatic; ex. pain reflex when touch hot stove), spinal nerves (exit the spinal cord), cranial nerves (exit the brain) Midsagittal brain and cerebrum/lobes figure labeling: ▪ Cerebrum, the four lobes (frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal), corpus callosum, brain stem, cerebellum CNS (integrates body signals, controls body, spinal cord reflexes), PNS (carries signals to and from CNS), somatic nervous system (voluntary control: skeletal muscle, skin), autonomic nervous system (involuntary: cardiac/smooth muscle, organs, glands) Chapter 15 – Sensory Systems Sensory receptors (receive stimulus and converts it to electrical signal): mechanoreceptor (touch/pressure, sound, equilibrium), thermoreceptor (temperature), photoreceptor (light), chemoreceptor (chemicals – taste/smell), pain receptor General senses (touch, pressure, others; throughout body) vs. special senses (smell, taste, vision, hearing, equilibrium) Smell/taste: ▪ Most of taste is actually the sense of smell ▪ Olfactory receptors (smell; nasal cavities), taste buds (mouth/tongue) o Both are chemoreceptors Eye: ▪ Eye figure labeling: o Cornea, choroid, sclera, iris, pupil, lens, optic nerve 4  ▪ Retina (innermost layer of the eyeball), photoreceptors: rods (no color vision; dim light) and cones (color vision, detail; bright light) ▪ Glaucoma (aqueous humor doesn’t drain; pressure compresses blood vessels in retina killing photoreceptors), colorblindness (genetic; defective cone) ▪ Have a general idea of how the eye focuses (ciliary body is smooth muscle, it changes lens shape to focus light rays directly onto retina; cornea contributes to light focusing too) and how nearsightedness (can only see close objects) and farsightedness (can only see distant objects) occur Ear: ▪ Ear figure labeling: o Pinna, eardrum = tympanic membrane, external auditory canal or tube, outer ear vs. middle ear vs. inner ear, auditory tube, cochlea, semicircular canals ▪ Cochlea houses hearing receptors (hair cell mechanoreceptors), vestibular apparatus (vestibule, semicircular canals) houses equilibrium receptors Chapter 16 – Endocrine System Two types of glands: exocrine (release products locally into ducts), endocrine (release hormones into blood) Hormone (chemical signal released by endocrine glands into bloodstream), negative feedback (ch. 4), positive feedback (ch. 4), target cell (cell that responds to a particular hormone – has receptor for the hormone) Pituitary gland (brain – beneath hypothalamus), thyroid (anterior neck), parathyroid (4 small glands on back of thyroid), adrenal glands (top of kidneys), thymus (superficial to the heart), pancreas (posterior to the stomach), ovary (pelvic cavity in females), testes (hang below the pelvic cavity outside the body of males) Growth hormone (bone and muscle growth), prolactin (stimulates milk production in mammary glands), thyroid-stimulating hormone (released by anterior pituitary to stimulate thyroid), thyroid hormone (metabolism), parathyroid hormone (increases calcium in blood), oxytocin (stimulates uterine contractions and milk release from mammary glands), ADH (decreases urine production when dehydrated), glucagon (raises blood sugar – breaks down glycogen), insulin (lowers blood sugar) Over-secretion of thyroid hormone (metabolism speeds up) and under-secretion of thyroid hormone (metabolism slows down), goiter (enlarged thyroid), Graves’ disease (autoimmune against the thyroid), Type I diabetes mellitus (autoimmune; younger onset; pancreas cells destroyed so can’t make insulin) vs. Type II diabetes mellitus (obesity, poor diet, lack of exercise; produce insulin but cells don’t respond) Chapter 6 - Blood Functions of blood: carries nutrients, wastes, gases, hormones to/from tissues; fights infection; helps regulate body temperature 5  Components of blood: plasma (liquid portion with dissolved substances), formed elements (red blood cells/erythrocytes (carry oxygen), white blood cells/leukocytes (immune system; fight infection), platelets/thrombocytes (blood clotting) Plasma proteins (proteins dissolved in plasma), phagocytes (ingest and break things down), hemoglobin (protein in RBCs that binds oxygen/carbon dioxide) Jaundice (liver dysfunction; RBC components build up, leads to yellow skin and scleras), anemia (low blood oxygen/RBCs), sickle cell anemia (genetic – abnormal hemoglobin changes shape of RBCs), leukemia (WBC cancer – produces nonfunctional cells that can’t fight infection), hemophilia (blood doesn’t clot properly; genetic), thrombus (stationary blood clot), embolus (moving blood clot – blocks blood flow to lungs, heart, brain) Blood types: antigen (triggers an immune response; glycoproteins on RBC surface), antibody (protein that binds to antigens, causes agglutination/clumping of “foreign” RBCs with different antigens from recipient), universal donor (type O negative), universal recipient (AB positive), Rh factor (another antigen on RBCs that determine blood type) Hemolytic disease of the newborn (Rh negative mom pregnant with Rh positive baby; mom is exposed to Rh factor during birth and produces antibodies against Rh factor; in pregnancy with a second Rh positive baby, her anti-Rh antibodies can destroy fetal RBCs) Chapter 5 – Cardiovascular System Artery (carries blood away from heart), arteriole (smallest arteries), capillary (smallest blood vessels – exchange materials with tissues), venule (smallest veins), vein (carries blood to the heart) Heart figure labeling: ▪ Myocardium, pericardium, septum, atria, ventricles, AV valves, semilunar valves Internal conduction system (pathway of electrical signals that cause heart to contract) Pulmonary circuit (carries blood to and from lungs, oxygenates it) vs. systemic circuit (carries blood to and from tissues, oxygenates them) No figures, but questions without a figure about: ▪ Jugular vein (in neck, drains deoxygenated blood from head), carotid artery (in neck, supplies oxygenated blood to head), superior and inferior vena cavae (empty blood returning from body into right atrium), pulmonary vein (carries oxygenated blood from lungs to heart) and pulmonary artery (carries deoxygenated blood from heart to lungs), aorta (carries blood out of the left ventricle), coronary artery (carries oxygenated blood to cardiac muscle) and coronary vein (carries deoxygenated blood from heart to right atrium) ECG/EKG (machines that measure electrical signals to detect cardiac muscle damage), Defibrillator (machine that shocks the heart to restart electrical signals), systolic blood pressure (higher pressure when heart is pumping blood) vs. diastolic blood pressure (lower pressure when heart relaxes), stroke (lack of oxygen to the brain, brain tissue dies; blood clot or blood vessel leakage) Blood flow through the heart and body, in order: superior vena cava, right atrium, tricuspid valve, right ventricle, pulmonary valve, pulmonary trunk, pulmonary arteries, lungs, 6  pulmonary veins, left atrium, bicuspid/mitral valve, left ventricle, aortic valve, aorta, arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins, inferior vena cava Which vessels carry oxygenated blood (systemic arteries and pulmonary veins) vs. deoxygenated blood (systemic veins and pulmonary arteries) Hypertension (high blood pressure), atherosclerosis (fatty deposits in arteries; block blood flow), angiogram (imaging to detect fatty deposits), myocardial infarction (heart attack = oxygen deprivation to the cardiac muscle, so it dies) The function of valves (to prevent the backflow of blood) Chapter 7 – Lymphatic and Immune System Lymphatic system: ▪ Removes extra fluid from tissues; aids immune function ▪ Phagocytes in lymph nodes filter lymph; phagocytes in the spleen filter blood ▪ Thymus is larger and most active in children Pathogen (foreign microorganism that causes disease) Barrier defense (skin, mucous membrane, mucus, stomach acid) The inflammatory reaction – signs (redness, swelling, heat, pain) and functions (increases blood flow brings immune cells, nutrients, oxygen to help heal and fight infection; fluid seeps out of blood into tissues and brings WBCs and nutrients with it; heat increases metabolism and denatures pathogens’ enzymes – helps heal; pain from swelling signals that something is wrong) B lymphocytes (B cells) – produce antibodies; antibody-mediated response T lymphocytes (T cells) – cell-mediated response; helper T cells start the immune reaction Antibodies (proteins that bind antigens), antigen (triggers an immune response) Plasma cells make antibodies; memory cells fight future infections Vaccination: inject weakened virus to trigger antibody production and invoke memory Autoimmune disorders (immune system attacks its own tissue) ▪ Ex: multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, Graves disease, type I diabetes mellitus, myasthenia gravis, rheumatic fever Rejection of organ transplants (antigens on donor organ are recognized as foreign by recipient, so they attack and destroy organ) Allergies (immune system overreacts to a non-harmful substance = pollen, dander, food) Chapter 10 – Respiratory System Respiratory system figure labeling: ▪ Nose, nasal cavity, sinus, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, alveolus, intercostal muscles, diaphragm Gas exchange (carbon dioxide/oxygen) only occurs in the alveoli Breathing: ▪ Roles of the diaphragm, intercostal muscles (expand thoracic cavity) ▪ Inhalation: enlarge the thoracic cavity to decrease pressure, which causes air to rush in (an active process) 7  ▪ Exhalation: just relax the inhalation muscles (passive unless forcibly exhale) In lungs, oxygen moves out of the alveoli and into the blood inside the pulmonary capillaries; carbon dioxide moves out of the pulmonary capillaries and into the alveoli Tuberculosis (bacterial infection), bronchitis (bronchi inflammation), emphysema (from smoking; alveoli deteriorate so less surface area for gas exchange) Chapter 9 – Digestive System Function: provide energy & building blocks (to make larger molecules) to the cells Digestive system figure labeling: mouth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine = colon, rectum, anus, liver, pancreas, gallbladder GI tract (tube that runs from mouth to anus; breaks down food, absorbs nutrients), mucosa (mucous membrane lining inside of GI tract) Peristalsis (smooth muscle contractions that push food and feces through the GI tract) Tooth: crown (above the gumline), enamel (hard, white layer covering the tooth), gum, root (below the gumline) Heartburn (lower gastroesophageal sphincter doesn’t work, stomach acid goes back into esophagus and causes burning), hepatitis (viral infection of liver), gallstones (bile crystals in gallbladder, can block a duct and cause pain), appendix (extension off cecum – functions in immunity), appendicitis (infection of appendix), diarrhea (feces moves through colon too quickly and water is not reabsorbed – watery feces), constipation (feces moves through colon too slowly and too much water is reabsorbed – hard feces) Feces are made of water, undigested food, sloughed-off mucosal cells, bacteria Chapter 11 – Urinary System Organs that eliminate waste from the body: lungs (carbon dioxide), sweat (salt/water/wastes), large intestine (undigested food/feces), kidneys (nitrogenous wastes – urine) Urinary system and kidney figure labeling: ▪ Kidneys, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra, renal artery, renal vein, renal pelvis, nephron Nephron (produces urine), glomerulus (capillaries), glomerular capsule (surrounds glomerulus), renal tubule (proximal convoluted tubule, nephron loop, distal convoluted tubule) Three steps of urine formation: ▪ Glomerular filtration (fluid moves out of the glomerulus into capsule) ▪ Tubular reabsorption (taking back needed substances into the peritubular capillaries/blood) ▪ Tubular secretion (drugs and remaining wastes in the blood go back into urine) Kidney stones (crystals in urine), renal failure (kidneys no longer function properly – caused by high blood pressure, toxins, disease), dialysis (machine filters blood, then put clean blood back into the body) 8 Chapter 17 – Reproductive System Testis (male gonad that produces sperm and testosterone), ovary (female gonad that produces eggs and estrogen/progesterone), gamete (egg/sperm), oocyte (female gamete, egg/ovum), sperm (male gamete that fertilizes egg) Testosterone (male sex hormone: promotes sex organ development and secondary sex characteristics), estrogen and progesterone (main female sex hormones: promotes sex organ development and secondary sex characteristics; also regulates ovarian and uterine cycles Fertilization (fusion of egg and sperm), zygote (one-celled fertilized egg) Difference between mitosis and meiosis ▪ Meiosis is cell division only used for making gametes; mitosis is cell division used for tissue growth, repair o Spermatogenesis (production of sperm), oogenesis (production of eggs) ▪ Humans have 23 pairs (46) chromosomes in body cells, 23 in gametes (diploid vs. haploid) Males: ▪ Male reproductive system labeling: o Scrotum, penis, glans penis, testis, epididymis, vas deferens, urethra, prostate ▪ Function of the scrotum is temperature regulation for spermatogenesis (smooth muscle brings testes closer to or further away from body to warm or cool them) ▪ Ejaculation (semen/sperm release), erection (blood flow to penis/erectile tissue), semen (fluid in which sperm is carried: sugars to provide energy; basic pH to neutralize acidity of the vagina), circumcision (removal of foreskin) ▪ The three glands that produce semen: prostate gland, seminal vesicles, bulbourethral glands Secondary sexual characteristics for males (hair growth, muscle development, larynx enlarges) and females (hair growth, breast development, fat deposition in hips and breasts) Females: ▪ Female reproductive system labeling: o Uterine tubes/oviducts = fallopian tubes, uterus, endometrium, ovary, cervix, vagina, labia minora, labia majora, clitoris ▪ Ectopic pregnancy (embryo implants outside the uterus), vulva (external genitalia = labia majora/minora and clitoris) ▪ Ovarian cycle: o Follicle (in ovary – houses oocyte), corpus luteum (after ovulation, follicles turn into this; an endocrine gland that secretes estrogen/progesterone – breaks down if pregnancy doesn’t occur), ovulation (release of oocyte from follicle), menopause (ovarian cycle stops, ovaries produce less hormones; side effects – osteoporosis, hot flashes), endometriosis (endometrial tissue escapes uterus and attaches to other organs; painful and can cause infertility) Birth control: male and female condom (male: covers penis and blocks sperm/virus transmission; female: inside vagina – blocks sperm/viruses), abstinence (no sexual 9  intercourse), vasectomy (cut vas deferens so that sperm can no longer exit the body), tubal ligation (cut uterine tubes so that egg can’t meet sperm), pill (hormonal control – women don’t go through normal ovarian cycle/ovulation) HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) vs. AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome – occurs when helper T cells have been infected with HIV so that immune system shuts down – typically person dies from infection) 10