BIOL 385 Learning Outcomes - Final Exam - Fall 2024 PDF

**[Chapter 1]** 1. Define physiology. Study of the normal functioning of a living organism and its component parts 2. List the levels of organization from atoms through organism. Atoms → Molecules → Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems → \*\*Organism 3. Define homeostasis...

**[Chapter 1]** 1. Define physiology. Study of the normal functioning of a living organism and its component parts 2. List the levels of organization from atoms through organism. Atoms → Molecules → Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems → \*\*Organism 3. Define homeostasis. What happens when homeostasis fails? The maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment despite changes in the internal and/or external environment; disease & sickness occur when homeostasis is disturbed for prolonged periods; homeostasis is a dynamic steady state, not equilibrium 4. Compare negative feedback, positive feedback, and feedforward control. Give an example of each. Negative feedback: A process that reverses a change to bring a system back to its set point. Helps maintain homeostasis **[Chapter 5]** 1. Explain how the body can be in osmotic equilibrium but electrical and chemical disequilibrium. 2. Create a map to compare simple diffusion, protein-mediated transport, and vesicular transport across membranes. A diagram of a protein medicated - **Simple Diffusion**: - Mechanism: Passive; molecules move down their concentration gradient. - Example: Oxygen and carbon dioxide crossing the lipid bilayer. - No energy or proteins required. - **Protein-Mediated Transport**: - Includes facilitated diffusion, active transport, and ion channels. - Facilitated Diffusion: Passive; uses carrier proteins (e.g., glucose transporters). - Active Transport: Requires energy (ATP); moves molecules against their gradient (e.g., Na⁺/K⁺ pump). - Channels: Allow specific ions to pass (e.g., voltage-gated Na⁺ channels). - **Vesicular Transport**: - Mechanism: Active; involves vesicles. - Types: Exocytosis (e.g., neurotransmitter release), endocytosis (e.g., LDL uptake), and phagocytosis. - Energy required for vesicle formation and movement. 3. Compare movement through channels to movement on facilitated diffusion and active transport carriers. a. Passive movement of ions or water. b. Selectivity based on size and charge. c. Fast, allowing many ions to pass simultaneously. d. Passive; binds specific molecules. e. Slower than channels; undergoes conformational changes for each molecule. f. Example: GLUT transporters. g. Requires ATP or another energy source. h. Moves molecules against their gradient. i. Example: Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase pump. (3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in)  A diagram of a transport carrier Description automatically generated 4. Apply the principles of specificity, competition, and saturation to carrier-mediated transport. 5. Explain how changes in ion permeability change membrane potential, giving examples. - **Membrane Potential**: Determined by the permeability of ions and their concentration gradients; potential difference = difference between ICF and ECF - **Increased Na⁺ Permeability**: Depolarizes the membrane (e.g., during the action potential's rising phase). - **Increased K⁺ Permeability**: Repolarizes the membrane (e.g., during the action potential's falling phase). - **Decreased Cl⁻ Permeability**: May depolarize the membrane if chloride\'s equilibrium potential is more negative than the resting potential.  A diagram of a cell membrane Description automatically generated **[Chapter 6]** 1. Describe three forms of local communication and two forms of long-distance communication. **The distinction between local and long-distance is a concept people seem to be forgetting as the semester goes on.** - **Local Communication**: 1. **Gap Junctions**: Direct cytoplasmic connections between adjacent cells that allow ions and small molecules to pass (e.g., cardiac muscle cells). 2. **Contact dependent signals:** require cell-to-cell contact; cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) 3. **Diffusing chemicals:** - Paracrine Signaling: Chemical signals released by a cell affect nearby cells (e.g., histamine during inflammation). - Autocrine Signaling: A cell releases a chemical that acts on itself (e.g., immune cells releasing interleukins). - **Long-Distance Communication**: 4. **Blood Transport** - **Endocrine System**: Hormones released into the bloodstream act on distant targets (e.g., insulin regulating glucose levels). 5. **Neurochemicals** - Neurotransmitters: released by neuron into synaptic cleft - Neuromodulators: modulate other neurons - Neurohormones: neuron releases hormone into blood  A diagram of a cell Description automatically generated 2. Explain the general sequence of events that follow lipophilic ligand binding to intracellular receptors. Slower response related to changes in gene activity 3. Describe the general sequence of events that follow lipophobic ligand binding to a cell surface receptor. Rapid cellular response  4. Name and describe four major groups of cell surface receptors. 5. Apply the concepts of specificity, competition, affinity, and saturation to receptors and their ligands. Note: receptor type depends on location - Alpha receptors: bind epi; found in intestinal blood vessels and cause vasoconstriction - Beta receptors: bind epi; found in skeletal muscle of blood vessels and cause vasodilation 6. List the seven steps of a reflex control pathway in the order in which they occur. 7. Compare the speed, specificity, types of signals, and duration of action in neural and endocrine reflexes. How is stimulus intensity coded in each type of reflex? - **Neural Reflexes**: - **Speed**: Very fast (milliseconds). - **Specificity**: Highly specific; targets specific cells. - **Signals**: Electrical (along neurons) and chemical (neurotransmitters). - **Duration**: Short-lived. - **Stimulus Intensity Coding**: Frequency of action potentials (increased) - **Endocrine Reflexes**: - **Speed**: Slower (minutes to hours). - **Specificity**: Broad; hormones affect all cells with appropriate receptors. - **Signals**: Chemical (hormones in the bloodstream). - **Duration**: Longer-lasting. - **Stimulus Intensity Coding**: Hormone concentration (increased) NOTE: these are mediated by the nervous system OR endocrine, NOT both; neuroendocrine is complex and is mediated by both A diagram of a brain process Description automatically generated  **[Chapter 7]** 1. Explain the four criteria that make a chemical signal a hormone. 2. Compare endocrine cells' synthesis, storage, and release of peptide and steroid hormones. 3. Compare the location of hormone receptors and the cellular mechanisms of action of peptide and steroid hormones. 4. Compare the three main groups of amine hormones. 5. Describe the role of the nervous system in endocrine reflexes. 6. List \[full spellings and abbreviations\] the six anterior pituitary hormones, the hormones that control their release, and their primary targets. 7. Compare long-loop negative feedback for anterior pituitary hormones to the negative feedback loops for insulin and parathyroid hormone. 8. Explain permissiveness, synergism, and functional antagonism as they apply to hormones. 9. Name the three most common types of endocrine pathologies. 10. Explain how negative feedback can be used to determine the location of a problem with one gland in a two- or three-gland pathway. Here are the explanations for your physiology learning outcomes: **1. Explain the four criteria that make a chemical signal a hormone.** 1. **Secreted by a Cell or Group of Cells**: Hormones are released by endocrine glands or specialized cells. 2. **Transported in the Blood**: Hormones travel via the bloodstream to distant targets. 3. **Bind to Specific Receptors**: Hormones act only on cells with appropriate receptors. 4. **Exert Effects at Low Concentrations**: Hormones are potent and effective in small amounts. **2. Compare endocrine cells' synthesis, storage, and release of peptide and steroid hormones.** - **Peptide Hormones**: - **Synthesis**: Made in advance as preprohormones; cleaved to active hormones. - **Storage**: Stored in secretory vesicles. - **Release**: Released by exocytosis when triggered (e.g., insulin). - **Steroid Hormones**: - **Synthesis**: Synthesized on demand from cholesterol. - **Storage**: Not stored; diffuse out of the cell immediately after synthesis. - **Release**: Diffuse through the cell membrane (e.g., cortisol). **3. Compare the location of hormone receptors and the cellular mechanisms of action of peptide and steroid hormones.** - **Peptide Hormones**: - **Receptors**: Located on the cell surface. - **Mechanism**: Activate second messenger pathways, leading to rapid responses (e.g., insulin). - **Steroid Hormones**: - **Receptors**: Located in the cytoplasm or nucleus. - **Mechanism**: Regulate gene expression, leading to slower but longer-lasting effects (e.g., testosterone). **4. Compare the three main groups of amine hormones.** 1. **Catecholamines**: - Derived from tyrosine. - Act like peptide hormones (e.g., epinephrine, norepinephrine). 2. **Thyroid Hormones**: - Derived from tyrosine. - Act like steroid hormones (e.g., thyroxine \[T4\], triiodothyronine \[T3\]). 3. **Melatonin**: - Derived from tryptophan. - Regulates circadian rhythms. **5. Describe the role of the nervous system in endocrine reflexes.** The nervous system integrates with the endocrine system through neurohormones and control pathways: - **Hypothalamus**: Produces neurohormones that regulate the pituitary gland. - **Neuroendocrine Reflexes**: Electrical signals trigger hormone release (e.g., oxytocin during childbirth). - **Feedback Loops**: Coordinates hormonal and neural responses for homeostasis. **6. List \[full spellings and abbreviations\] the six anterior pituitary hormones, the hormones that control their release, and their primary targets.** 1. **Prolactin (PRL)**: - **Control**: Prolactin-releasing factors and dopamine. - **Target**: Mammary glands. 2. **Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)**: - **Control**: Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). - **Target**: Thyroid gland. 3. **Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)**: - **Control**: Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). - **Target**: Adrenal cortex. 4. **Growth Hormone (GH)**: - **Control**: Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) and somatostatin. - **Target**: Liver and other tissues. 5. **Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)**: - **Control**: Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). - **Target**: Gonads. 6. **Luteinizing Hormone (LH)**: - **Control**: Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). - **Target**: Gonads. **7. Compare long-loop negative feedback for anterior pituitary hormones to the negative feedback loops for insulin and parathyroid hormone.** - **Long-Loop Negative Feedback**: - Hormones from target endocrine glands (e.g., cortisol) inhibit the anterior pituitary and hypothalamus. - **Insulin Feedback**: - High blood glucose stimulates insulin release, which lowers blood glucose, reducing the stimulus. - **Parathyroid Hormone Feedback**: - Low calcium levels stimulate parathyroid hormone release, which increases calcium, reducing further hormone release. **8. Explain permissiveness, synergism, and functional antagonism as they apply to hormones.** - **Permissiveness**: One hormone enables another's full effect (e.g., thyroid hormone enhances epinephrine's effect on fat breakdown). - **Synergism**: Two hormones together produce a greater effect than the sum of their individual effects (e.g., glucagon and epinephrine on blood glucose). - **Functional Antagonism**: Two hormones have opposing effects (e.g., insulin decreases blood glucose, glucagon increases it). **9. Name the three most common types of endocrine pathologies.** 1. **Hypersecretion**: Excess hormone production (e.g., hyperthyroidism). 2. **Hyposecretion**: Deficient hormone production (e.g., hypothyroidism). 3. **Abnormal Target Response**: Target cells fail to respond appropriately (e.g., type 2 diabetes). **10. Explain how negative feedback can be used to determine the location of a problem with one gland in a two- or three-gland pathway.** - In a **three-gland pathway** (e.g., hypothalamus → anterior pituitary → thyroid): - If hormone levels are high at the final gland (e.g., thyroid hormone), but low at earlier levels (e.g., TSH), the problem is likely in the **anterior pituitary or hypothalamus**. - If all hormone levels are low, the issue may lie in the **hypothalamus**. - If only the final gland hormone is low, the problem is likely in the **target gland** (e.g., thyroid). Let me know if you\'d like additional details or further clarification! **[Chapter 8]** 1. Map the organization of the nervous system in detail. 2. Name the types and functions of glial cells. 3. Compare and contrast graded potentials and action potentials. 4. Explain the changes in ion permeability and ion flow that take place during an action potential. 5. Describe and compare absolute and relative refractory periods. 6. Describe the role of the following in synaptic communication: ionotropic and metabotropic receptors, neurotransmitters and neuromodulators, fast and slow synaptic potentials, excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. 7. Explain the mechanism of long-term potentiation mediated by AMPA and NMDA receptors. **[Chapter 9]** 1. Explain the formation, distribution, and functions of cerebrospinal fluid. 2. Describe the structure and functions of the blood-brain barrier. 3. Name the major subdivisions of the cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon, and brain stem. Explain their anatomical relationships, and give their major functions. 4. Name the four lobes of the cerebral cortex, and explain which sensory, motor, or association areas are associated with each lobe. **[Chapter 10]** 1. Explain how receptors convert physical stimuli into electrical signals using the following terms: transduction, threshold, adequate stimulus, receptive field, receptor potential. 2. Explain how the central nervous system is able to determine modality, location, intensity, and duration of a stimulus. 3. Explain how tonic and phasic receptors adapt to a continuous stimulus. 4. Explain how pain and itch are mediated by nociceptors. **[Chapter 11]** 1. Describe the ~~structure and~~ secretions of the adrenal medulla. **People have been confusing epinephrine from the adrenal medulla with norepinephrine from sympathetic neurons.** 2. Describe the structure of the neuromuscular junction. 3. Compare the anatomy, neurotransmitters and receptors of the somatic motor, sympathetic, and parasympathetic divisions. **[Chapter 12]** 1. Diagram the molecular events of excitation-contraction coupling and the contractile cycle. 2. Explain how muscle length influences force of contraction. 3. Define a motor unit, and explain how skeletal muscles use them to create graded contractions. 4. Diagram smooth muscle contraction and relaxation. **[Chapter 13]** 1. List four ways to classify neural reflex pathways. 2. Diagram a stretch reflex. 3. Use the following terms to explain the patellar tendon reflex: monosynaptic stretch reflex, reciprocal inhibition, myotatic unit. 4. Diagram a flexion reflex and its associated crossed-extensor reflex. **[Chapter 14]** 1. Describe the membrane proteins and ion movement involved in myocardial excitation-contraction (EC) coupling and relaxation. 2. Compare and contrast action potentials of myocardial autorhythmic and contractile cells. 3. Explain the relationship of heart rate, cardiac output, and stroke volume. 4. Explain the role of the autonomic divisions in control of heart rate at the cellular and molecular level. 5. Explain how the following factors influence stroke volume: venous return, length- tension relationships, preload, afterload, contractility, skeletal muscle pump, respiratory pump, inotropic agents. **Afterload seemed to be an area that should be reviewed.** **[Chapter 15]** 1. Explain what creates blood pressure and how blood pressure changes as blood flows through the systemic circulation. 2. Explain the relationship between blood flow, pressure gradients, and the resistance of the system to flow. Use Poiseuille's law to explain the factors that influence resistance. 3. Explain the contributions of cardiac output and peripheral resistance to blood pressure. 4. Calculate mean arterial pressure. 5. Define myogenic autoregulation and explain its role in altering local blood flow. **This might be an area that should be reviewed.** 6. Explain how the body can use local and long-distance signaling to direct blood flow to or away from specific organs or tissues. **Keep in mind the distinctions between local & long-distance.** 7. Describe in detail the steps of the baroreceptor reflex, including the stimulus, sensor, input pathway, integrating center(s), output pathways, target(s), **cellular response(s**), tissue response(s), and systemic response(s). Include all chemical signal molecules and their receptors as well as any feedback loops. 8. Explain the forces that influence capillary filtration and absorption. **[Chapter 16]** 1. Describe the composition of plasma and list the major functions of plasma proteins. 2. List the cellular elements of blood and describe the function(s) of each. 3. *Define hematopoiesis and its subtypes,* including key cytokines involved in development. 4. Describe the ~~production, structure, and~~ functions of platelets. 5. Diagram the key steps of hemostasis, coagulation, and fibrinolysis. **[Chapter 17]** 1. List four major functions of the respiratory system. 2. Define and describe the lung volumes and lung capacities. 3. Explain how pressures and lung volumes change during normal breathing, and how that affects airflow in the respiratory system. 4. Explain how sub-atmospheric intrapleural pressure ~~develops~~ and the role it plays in normal breathing. 5. Graph the alveolar and intrapleural pressure changes that occur during one respiratory cycle. 6. Compare and contrast compliance and elastance in respiratory physiology, ~~giving examples of disease states that demonstrate changes in compliance and/or elastance.~~ 7. Explain the role of surface tension and surfactants in respiratory physiology. 8. Map the factors affecting airway resistance, with emphasis on local and reflex control mechanisms involved in bronchodilation and bronchoconstriction. **Keep local and reflex separate.** 9. Compare and contrast total pulmonary ventilation and alveolar ventilation. 10. Explain the local control mechanisms by which ventilation and alveolar blood flow are matched.