Podcast
Questions and Answers
In carrier-mediated transport, 3 Na+ are transported ______ and 2 K+ are transported in.
In carrier-mediated transport, 3 Na+ are transported ______ and 2 K+ are transported in.
out
Increased Na⁺ permeability during an action potential leads to ______ of the membrane.
Increased Na⁺ permeability during an action potential leads to ______ of the membrane.
depolarization
Increased K⁺ permeability during the action potential's falling phase causes ______ of the membrane.
Increased K⁺ permeability during the action potential's falling phase causes ______ of the membrane.
repolarization
Gap junctions allow for direct cytoplasmic connections between ______ cells.
Gap junctions allow for direct cytoplasmic connections between ______ cells.
Paracrine signaling involves chemical signals released by a cell affecting nearby ______.
Paracrine signaling involves chemical signals released by a cell affecting nearby ______.
The endocrine system uses hormones released into the bloodstream to act on ______ targets.
The endocrine system uses hormones released into the bloodstream to act on ______ targets.
Neurotransmitters are released by neurons into the ______ cleft.
Neurotransmitters are released by neurons into the ______ cleft.
In autocrine signaling, a cell releases a chemical that acts on ______.
In autocrine signaling, a cell releases a chemical that acts on ______.
Hormones are secreted by ______ or specialized cells.
Hormones are secreted by ______ or specialized cells.
Peptide hormones are stored in ______ vesicles.
Peptide hormones are stored in ______ vesicles.
Steroid hormones are synthesized on demand from ______.
Steroid hormones are synthesized on demand from ______.
Peptide hormones bind to receptors located on the ______ surface.
Peptide hormones bind to receptors located on the ______ surface.
Amine hormones like epinephrine are derived from ______.
Amine hormones like epinephrine are derived from ______.
Steroid hormones diffuse through the cell membrane immediately after ______.
Steroid hormones diffuse through the cell membrane immediately after ______.
Hormones exert effects at ______ concentrations.
Hormones exert effects at ______ concentrations.
Catecholamines are considered ______ hormones that act like peptide hormones.
Catecholamines are considered ______ hormones that act like peptide hormones.
Lipophilic ligands bind to ______ receptors causing a slower response related to changes in gene activity.
Lipophilic ligands bind to ______ receptors causing a slower response related to changes in gene activity.
Lipophobic ligands typically bind to ______ receptors to induce a rapid cellular response.
Lipophobic ligands typically bind to ______ receptors to induce a rapid cellular response.
______ receptors bind to epinephrine and are found in intestinal blood vessels, resulting in vasoconstriction.
______ receptors bind to epinephrine and are found in intestinal blood vessels, resulting in vasoconstriction.
______ receptors are located in skeletal muscle blood vessels and lead to vasodilation when they bind epinephrine.
______ receptors are located in skeletal muscle blood vessels and lead to vasodilation when they bind epinephrine.
Neural reflexes are known for their very fast response, typically occurring in ______ milliseconds.
Neural reflexes are known for their very fast response, typically occurring in ______ milliseconds.
Endocrine reflexes respond more slowly and can take from ______ to hours.
Endocrine reflexes respond more slowly and can take from ______ to hours.
Hormonal specificity is ______, affecting all cells that possess the corresponding receptors.
Hormonal specificity is ______, affecting all cells that possess the corresponding receptors.
The frequency of action potentials is used to code the ______ intensity in neural reflexes.
The frequency of action potentials is used to code the ______ intensity in neural reflexes.
The hormone ______ regulates circadian rhythms and is derived from tryptophan.
The hormone ______ regulates circadian rhythms and is derived from tryptophan.
The ______ produces neurohormones that regulate the pituitary gland.
The ______ produces neurohormones that regulate the pituitary gland.
Prolactin (PRL) primarily targets the ______.
Prolactin (PRL) primarily targets the ______.
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) has its target in the ______.
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) has its target in the ______.
______ is released in response to low calcium levels.
______ is released in response to low calcium levels.
Long-loop negative feedback involves hormones from target endocrine glands inhibiting the ______ and hypothalamus.
Long-loop negative feedback involves hormones from target endocrine glands inhibiting the ______ and hypothalamus.
The concept of ______ describes how one hormone enhances another's effect.
The concept of ______ describes how one hormone enhances another's effect.
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) is controlled by ______-releasing hormone.
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) is controlled by ______-releasing hormone.
Receptors convert physical stimuli into electrical signals through a process called ______.
Receptors convert physical stimuli into electrical signals through a process called ______.
The minimum level of stimulus required to activate a receptor is known as the ______.
The minimum level of stimulus required to activate a receptor is known as the ______.
Pain and itch sensations are mediated by ______, which are specialized receptors for detecting harmful stimuli.
Pain and itch sensations are mediated by ______, which are specialized receptors for detecting harmful stimuli.
The area where a specific sensory receptor can detect stimuli is called the ______.
The area where a specific sensory receptor can detect stimuli is called the ______.
Tonic receptors are known for their ability to adapt slowly and generate a constant response to a ______ stimulus.
Tonic receptors are known for their ability to adapt slowly and generate a constant response to a ______ stimulus.
The ______ is responsible for transmitting motor impulses to skeletal muscles at the neuromuscular junction.
The ______ is responsible for transmitting motor impulses to skeletal muscles at the neuromuscular junction.
The relationship between heart rate, cardiac output, and stroke volume is described as ______.
The relationship between heart rate, cardiac output, and stroke volume is described as ______.
The stretching of a muscle that is necessary for the patellar tendon reflex is a type of ______ reflex.
The stretching of a muscle that is necessary for the patellar tendon reflex is a type of ______ reflex.
Two hormones together produce a greater effect than the sum of their individual effects, a concept known as ______.
Two hormones together produce a greater effect than the sum of their individual effects, a concept known as ______.
In endocrine pathologies, excess hormone production is referred to as ______.
In endocrine pathologies, excess hormone production is referred to as ______.
The condition of deficient hormone production is known as ______.
The condition of deficient hormone production is known as ______.
When target cells fail to respond appropriately to hormones, it is classified as ______.
When target cells fail to respond appropriately to hormones, it is classified as ______.
In a three-gland pathway, high hormone levels at the final gland but low at earlier levels suggest a problem in the ______ or hypothalamus.
In a three-gland pathway, high hormone levels at the final gland but low at earlier levels suggest a problem in the ______ or hypothalamus.
If all hormone levels are low in a glandular pathway, the issue may lie in the ______.
If all hormone levels are low in a glandular pathway, the issue may lie in the ______.
In endocrine pathways, if only the final gland hormone is low, the problem is likely in the ______.
In endocrine pathways, if only the final gland hormone is low, the problem is likely in the ______.
Glucagon and epinephrine both have a role in increasing ______ levels in the blood.
Glucagon and epinephrine both have a role in increasing ______ levels in the blood.
Flashcards
Na+/K+ pump
Na+/K+ pump
A transport protein that moves 3 sodium ions out of a cell and 2 potassium ions into a cell, using energy from ATP.
Membrane Potential
Membrane Potential
The difference in electrical charge across a cell membrane.
Depolarization
Depolarization
A change in membrane potential, making the inside of the cell more positive.
Repolarization
Repolarization
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Local Communication
Local Communication
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Gap Junctions
Gap Junctions
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Long-distance Communication
Long-distance Communication
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Endocrine System
Endocrine System
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Lipophilic ligand binding sequence
Lipophilic ligand binding sequence
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Lipophobic ligand binding sequence
Lipophobic ligand binding sequence
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Cell surface receptor types
Cell surface receptor types
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Receptor Specificity
Receptor Specificity
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Endocrine Reflex Speed
Endocrine Reflex Speed
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Neural Reflex Speed
Neural Reflex Speed
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Hormone Criteria
Hormone Criteria
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Peptide vs. Steroid hormones
Peptide vs. Steroid hormones
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Anterior Pituitary Hormones
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
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Hormone Release Control
Hormone Release Control
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Target Tissues
Target Tissues
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Long-Loop Negative Feedback
Long-Loop Negative Feedback
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Insulin and Parathyroid Hormone Feedback
Insulin and Parathyroid Hormone Feedback
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Permissiveness
Permissiveness
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Synergism
Synergism
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Functional Antagonism
Functional Antagonism
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Functional Antagonism
Functional Antagonism
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Hypersecretion
Hypersecretion
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Hyposecretion
Hyposecretion
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Abnormal Target Response
Abnormal Target Response
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Negative Feedback in Endocrine Pathways
Negative Feedback in Endocrine Pathways
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Three-gland Pathway Issue Location
Three-gland Pathway Issue Location
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Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Thyroid Pathway Problem
Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Thyroid Pathway Problem
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Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3)
Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3)
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Melatonin
Melatonin
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What is the hypothalamus' role in the endocrine system?
What is the hypothalamus' role in the endocrine system?
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Neuroendocrine Reflex
Neuroendocrine Reflex
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Prolactin (PRL)
Prolactin (PRL)
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Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
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Transduction
Transduction
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Receptor Potential
Receptor Potential
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Adequate Stimulus
Adequate Stimulus
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Receptive Field
Receptive Field
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Modality
Modality
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Phasic Receptor
Phasic Receptor
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Tonic Receptor
Tonic Receptor
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Nociceptor
Nociceptor
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Study Notes
Chapter 1
- Physiology is the study of the normal functioning of a living organism and its parts
- Organization levels: Atoms → Molecules → Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems → Organism
- Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes. Disturbance leads to disease
- Negative feedback reverses changes to maintain the set point (example: body temperature regulation)
- Positive feedback amplifies changes, moving the system away from the set point (example: childbirth)
- Feedforward control anticipates changes and activates mechanisms to prevent deviations. (example: salivation before eating)
Chapter 5
- Osmotic equilibrium means the total solute concentration is equal on both sides of the membrane.
- Chemical disequilibrium means different solutes are unevenly distributed across the membrane (e.g. Na+ higher outside cells, K+ higher inside).
- Electrical disequilibrium creates a charge difference across the membrane (resting membrane potential ≈ -70 mV).
- Transport types (simple diffusion, protein-mediated, and vesicular transport) are compared.
Chapter 6
- Local communication methods: gap junctions, contact-dependent signals, and diffusing chemicals (paracrine signaling).
- Long-distance communication methods: blood transport (endocrine system) and neurochemicals (neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, neurohormones), transmitting signals over long distances.
Hormonal regulation
- Four criteria for a chemical signal to be a hormone: secreted by a cell, transported in blood, binds to specific receptors, and exerts effects at low concentrations.
- Peptide hormones are synthesized in advance, stored in vesicles, and released by exocytosis. Steroid hormones are synthesized on demand and diffuse out of the cell.
- Peptide hormones bind to cell-surface receptors, triggering intracellular signaling. Steroid hormones bind to intracellular receptors, regulating gene expression.
- Three main amine hormone groups: catecholamines (derived from tyrosine, like epinephrine), thyroid hormones (derived from tyrosine, like T3 and T4), and melatonin (derived from tryptophan).
- Seven steps in a reflex control pathway, starting with stimulus, followed by sensor, input signal, integrating center, output signal, target, and response.
- Neural reflexes are fast, highly specific, and involve electrical and chemical signals. Endocrine reflexes are slower, general, and use hormones secreted into the bloodstream. Stimulus intensity is coded differently in each.
- Types of endocrine pathologies include hypersecretion (excess hormone production), hyposecretion (deficient hormone production), and abnormal target responses (e.g., type 2 diabetes).
- Negative feedback can be used to pinpoint problem locations; for example, decreased hormone levels in a subsequent gland suggests earlier gland dysfunction as the cause.
Other chapters
- Summaries of other chapters are provided, with details as in the provided text.
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