Biochemistry Reviewer PDF

responsible for processing food and absorbing BIOCHEMISTRY nutrients THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE Biochemistry...

responsible for processing food and absorbing BIOCHEMISTRY nutrients THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE Biochemistry  Living organisms are made of macromolecules. The scientific discipline that seeks to explain life at  Organisms acquire, transform, store, and use the molecular level. It uses the tools and energy. generation. terminology of chemistry to describe the various  Biological information is transmitted from attributes of living organisms. generation to 1.What are we made of?  Cells maintain a state of homeostasis.  We are made of various biological molecules,  Organisms evolve. including proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and  Diseases can be explained at the biochemical nucleic acids. Level  These molecules are composed of elements Homeostasis such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,  ability of cells to maintain a stable internal phosphorus, and sulfur. environment despite changes in external 2.How do we work? conditions.  Our bodies work through complex biochemical Evolution processes that involve the interaction of these  the process by which populations of organisms biological molecules. change over time through variations in their LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION IN A LIVING genetic makeup. ORGANISM. Macromolecules  Large molecule formed by polymerization, where smaller units called monomers join Atom together through covalent bonds to create a  the smallest unit of matter polymer  basic building blocks of all matter and consist of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. Cell  the smallest unit of life  fundamental structural and  functional units of all living organisms2. Example of tissue:  Muscle tissue is responsible for movement and is found in various parts of the body, including the heart (cardiac muscle), skeletal muscles, and smooth muscles in organs3. Example of an organ system: Functions of Macromolecules  Digestive system.  Providing structural support  Includes organs such as the mouth, esophagus,  Storing genetic information stomach, intestines, and liver, and is  Catalyzing biochemical reactions. Types of Macromolecules:  Virtually all the molecules in a living organism  Proteins: Made up of amino acids. They contain CARBON, so biochemistry can be perform various functions, including catalyzing considered to be a branch of organic chemistry. reactions (enzymes), providing structural Amino acids support, and regulating processes.  are the building blocks of proteins, which are  Lipids: Composed of fatty acids and glycerol. essential for nearly every function in our bodies. They are important for storing energy, forming Structure: cell membranes, and acting as signaling Amino Group molecules. Carboxyl Group  Carbohydrates: Consist of sugar residues Hydrogen Atom (monosaccharides). They provide energy, R group structural support, and are involved in cell recognition. Types of Amino Acids  Nucleic Acids: Made up of nucleotides. They  Essential Amino Acids: These cannot be store and transmit genetic information (DNA produced by the body and must be obtained and RNA) through diet. There are nine essential amino Uses of Macromolecules acids, including leucine, lysine, and tryptophan.  Non-Essential Amino Acids: These can be synthesized by the body. Examples include alanine, aspartic acid, and glutamine.  Conditionally Essential Amino Acids: These are normally non-essential but may become essential under certain conditions, such as illness or stress. Examples include arginine and cysteine. MAJOR BIOMOLECULES Carbohydrates (C6H12O6.)  are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. They are primarily a source of energy for the body. Types of Carbohydrates  Sugars: Simple carbohydrates with a sweet taste, such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose. They provide quick energy. LIST OF ELEMENTS FOUND IN  Starches: Complex carbohydrates made up of BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES long chains of glucose molecules. They are  The most abundant of these are C, N, O, and H found in foods like potatoes, rice, and bread. followed by Ca, P, K, S, Cl, Na, and Mg.  Fiber: A type of complex carbohydrate that the Certain trace elements are also present in very body cannot fully digest. Fiber helps regulate small quantities. Certain trace elements are also the digestive system and supports overall gut present in very small quantities. health. Nucleotides  are organic molecules that combine to form  Single Strand: RNA is usually single-stranded, nucleic acids. They are crucial for storing and although it can fold into complex three- transferring genetic information. dimensional shapes. Structure of Nucleotides  Base Pairing: In RNA, adenine pairs with uracil  Phosphate Group: A molecule containing (U) instead of thymine, and cytosine pairs with phosphorus and oxygen. This group is involved guanine. in linking nucleotides together to form the Polysaccharides backbone of nucleic acids.  Usually contain only one or a few different  Sugar Molecule: In DNA, the sugar is types of monosaccharide residues, so even deoxyribose, while in RNA, it is ribose. The though a cell may synthesize dozens of sugar molecule connects to both the phosphate different kinds of monosaccharides, most of its group and the nitrogenous base. polysaccharides are homogeneous polymers.  Nitrogenous Base: A molecule that contains  Polysaccharides perform essential cell nitrogen and is the key part of the nucleotide functions by serving as fuel-storage molecules that encodes genetic information. There are and by providing structural support. four types of nitrogenous bases:  The glucose residues are linked by glycosidic Lipids bonds (the bond is shown in red in this  These compounds cannot be described by a disaccharide): single structural formula since they are a diverse collection of molecules. However, they all tend to be poorly soluble in water because the bulk of their structure is hydrocarbon-like. Proteins  Polymers of amino acids are called polypeptides or proteins. Twenty different amino acids serve as building blocks for proteins, which may contain many hundreds of amino acid residues.  Proteins perform a wide variety of tasks in the cell, such as mediating chemical reactions and providing structural support Nucleic Acids  Polymers of nucleotides are termed polynucleotides or nucleic acids, better known as DNA and RNA. DNA STRUCTURE  Double Helix: DNA is typically found in the form of a double helix, which consists of two long strands of nucleotides coiled around each other. The strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary nitrogenous bases  Backbone. : The backbone of the DNA strand is formed by alternating sugar and phosphate groups.  Antiparallel Orientation: The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions, which is critical for DNA replication and function. RNA