Biochemistry Learning Module PDF

UNIVERSIDAD DE ZAMBOANGA SCHOOL OF ALLIED MEDICINE BIOCHEMISTRY Learning Module Name_____________________________________________ Section:___________________________________________ _____________  Universidad de Zamboanga SCHOOL OF ALLIED MEDICINE Depart...

UNIVERSIDAD DE ZAMBOANGA SCHOOL OF ALLIED MEDICINE BIOCHEMISTRY Learning Module Name_____________________________________________ Section:___________________________________________ _____________  Universidad de Zamboanga SCHOOL OF ALLIED MEDICINE Department of Medical Technology Learning Module BIOCHEMISTRY Dr. Marilyn G. Dagalea Professor 1 1  Universidad de Zamboanga School of Allied Medicine Medical Technology Department APPROVAL This is to certify that this module has been approved for use, exclusively in the Medical Technology Department, School of Allied Medicine of Universidad de Zamboanga in the course of Biochemistry for the 1st semester SY 2020-2021. Copyright: All rights reserved. No part of this module may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written consent of the Author/s and Universidad de Zamboanga. Dr. Marilyn G. Dagalea Professor 1 Approved by: Dr. Bashiruddin A. Ajihil Vice-President for Academic Affairs 2 Course Guide The course deals with the molecular hierarchy of the living cell. It covers the study of the biomolecules in relation to their structure and functions in the living system. Understanding the structural properties of a molecule enables us to form hypotheses about its interaction with other molecules and its function in a cell. It also discusses the molecular aspects of the four major cover or types of biological molecules: proteins, nucleic acids, lipids and carbohydrates. Further topics include biological equilibria, metabolic pathways, thermodynamics, kinetics, bioenergetics, and the assembly of these molecules into cellular structures such as membranes and organelles. At the end of the course, you should be able to; 1. Discuss the important of biochemical mechanisms and their regulation by which the different biomolecules operate as basis for the various processes of life. 2. Describe the chemistry of the various body constituents and their adaptation for the performance of their roles in the various processes of life. 3. Recognize the structure of the different biomolecules carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. 4. Apply the methods and techniques in the isolation, characterization and analysis of the different biomolecules. 5. Identify and describe the different detection tests done for colloidal solutions, Lipids, Proteins, Milk, Saliva, Feces, Blood and Urine. disorders 6. Explain derangements in metabolic disorders in relation to health and disease. The course will begin with the introduction of biochemistry, which gives a significance in the biochemical processes of the body, and it also discusses different biomolecules. Submission of requirements must be done on time, there will be formative assessment and evaluation will be done at the end of every unit lesson or topic and a summative assessment at the end of the course. This is to determine how far have you learn from the lesson and topics presented. Please be guided by the grading system use by the University. 3 For Assessment and Evaluation Major Exams (Midterm and Final Exam) ……………………………60% Activity, Quizzes …………………………….40% 100% It is imperative that you focus in every topic and lesson and if you don’t understand, you may consult any member of your family who has already taken the course in their studies. Likewise, don’t hesitate to consult me. My contact information is included in this course guide. The references cited in the module maybe augmented by using books, journals and other publications. It goes without saying that you can use other references other that those mentioned in this module. You may contact me in the following address, and email; Dr. Marilyn G. Dagalea Medical Technology Department School of Allied Medicine UZ Main Campus, Don Toribio Street Tetuan, Zamboanga City Email: [email protected] Contact No. 09778059590 4  TABLE OF CONTENTS Page COVER PAGE …………………………………………………………………………… 2 APPROVAL …………………………………………………………………………… 3 COPYRIGHT …………………………………………………………………………… 3 COURSE GUIDE ………………………………………………………………………… 4 MODULES Module 1- Introduction to Biochemistry…………………………………………….. 7 Topic 1 – The Nature of Biochemistry Topic 2 – Chemical Composition of Living Matter Topic 3 – Physical Chemistry Module 2 – Carbohydrates……………………………………………………………… 32 Topic 1 – General Properties and Functions Topic 2 – Carbohydrates Metabolism Module 3 – Lipids…………………………………………………………………………. 53 Topic 1 – General Properties and Functions Topic 2 – Carbohydrates Metabolism Module 4 – Proteins ……………………………………………………………………….70 Topic 1 – General Properties and Functions Topic 2 – Protein Metabolism Module 5 – Nucleic Acids………………………………………………………………… 84 Topic 1 – Hemtoprotein/ Porpyrins Topic 2 – Nucleic Acid Module 6 – Biochemical Process………………………………………………………..97 Topic 1- Enzymes Topic 2 – Digestion 5 Module 7 – Body Fluids………………………………………………………………………117 Topic 1 – Blood Topic 2 – Feces Topic 3 - Urine Module 8 – Chemistry of Respiration………………………………………………………133 Topic – 1 Chloride Shift Module 9 – Chemotherapy/Antibiotics……………………………………………………..139 Topic 1 – Chemotherapy Topic 2 – Antibiotics 6  Module 1 INTRODUCTION TO BIOCHEMISTRY Topic Topic Title Time Duration 1 The Nature of Biochemistry 1 hour 2 Chemical Composition of Living Matter 1 hour 3 Physical Chemistry 1 hour Learning Objectives: At the end of the module 1, you should be able to : 1. Explain the meaning of biochemistry and its importance. 2. Identify the components of a cell and its types 3. Demonstrate the role of cell organization and the different types of chemical reactions. 4. Discuss the Physical Chemistry 5. Distinguish the Colloidal property of matter Biochemistry is a young science, having been known under that term only since about 1900. It origins, however, can be traced further back; its early history is part of the early history both physiology and chemistry. Biochemistry is a multidisciplinary science. Over the last decades of the 20th Century, biochemistry become so successful at explainng living processes that now almost all areas of the life science from today to medicine to gentics are engaged in biochemical research. Today, the main focus of pure biochemistry is in understanding how biological molecules give rise to the processes tha occurs within living cells, which in turn relates greatly to the study and understanding of whole organisms. 7  Topic 1. THE NATURE OF BIOCHEMSITRY ***************************************************************************************************************************** ************** Biochemistry deals with the study of chemistry of livign organism. It is the application of the principles amd methods of chemistry to the field of biology and physiology. Biochemistry is not an isolated discipline. It is the most comprehensive in its broad aspects and includes inorganic, organic and physical chemistry. Meaning of Biochemistry The importance of Biochemistry in medical science is due to the increasing recognition that underlying each and every biological function in a chemical reaction. There are several particular phases of Biochemistry  Biochemistry is the study of compounds, chemical reactions, and molecular interactions that are involved in the production, maintenance and reproduction of living organisms.  Biochemistry will serve as a central component of all the health sciences, including microbiology, genetics, physiology, nutrition, medicine, dentistry and nursing.  Biochemistry -It is concerned with the physico- chemical processes underlying digestion, absorption, circulation, respiration, metabolism, growth and reproduction. Scope of Biochemistry  The scope of biochemistry is as wide as life itself. Whenever there is life, chemical processes are occuring. It is also concerned with the entire spectrum of life forms, from relatively simple viruses and bacteria to complex human being.  It deals with the study of the special chemical constituents, which makes one tissue to distinct and different from another, by virtue of this unique composition, there is a structural localization of the different functions of the body.  It deals with the chemical processes taking place in the body, among the substances identifies are water, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acid, organic and inorganic salts. 9 Branches of Biochemistry The branches of biochemistry are vast and diverse and have varied overtime and the progress of biology, chemistry and physics. Everyday new topics are adding in the scientific data.  Structural Biochemistry - This is one of the main branchs of biochemistry, it deals with the chemical architecture of biological macromoleucles.  Bio-organic Chemistry - Deals with the area of Chemistry that deals with the study of organic compounds (i.e, those having carbon-carbon or carbon-hydrogen cavalent bond) that come specially from livign things.  Enzymology - It deals with the study of behavioral catalyst or enzymes, such as certain proteins and certain catalytic RNA and the coenzymes and cofactors such as metals and vitamins.  Metabolic Biochemistry - The study of area of biochemistry who claim to know the different types of metabolic pathways at the cellular level and organic context.  Immunology - All this taking into a account the reaction and immune function of livign things  Endocrinology - It is the of a biosynthesis, storage and function of hormones , cells and tissue secreting and hormone signaling metabolisms.  Virology - This is one of the areas of biology , dedicated to the study of elementary biosystems.  Molecular Genetics and Genetics Engineering - An area od biochemistry and molecular biology that studies the genes, theri heritage, and their expression.  Molecular Biology - Scientific discipline that aims to the study the processes taking place in living organisms from a molecular standpoint. 10   Cell Biology - This is an area of biology dedicated to the study of morphology and physiology of prokaryotes Biochemical Substances Biochemical substance is a chemical substance found within a living organism  Bioinorganic Substances - substances that do not contain carbon a. Water (70%) b. Inorganic salts (5 %)  Bioorganic Substances - substances that contain carbon a. Proteins (15%) b. Lipids (8%) c. Carbohydrates (2%) d. Nucleic acids (2%) 11 The Cell The cell is the basic structural and functional component of life, humans are muticellular organism composed of 60 to 100 trillions cells. It is at the microscopic cellular level, thats such vital functions of life a metabolism , growth, response to stimuli, repair and reproduction as carried on. The most strikinng thing about a cell is its organization, they are made up of primarily of four elements; carbon, hydrogen, orxgen and nitrogen. Cells also vary dramatically in their functions, or roles, they play in the body. Figurre 1. Cell Structure The Tissue  Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism.  A tissue is an ensemble of cells, not necessarily identical, but from the same origin, that together carry out a specific function.  Organs are then formed by the functional grouping together of multiple tissues.  The study of tissue is known as Histology or, in connection with disease, Histopathology. 13  Topic 2. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF LIVING MATTER ***************************************************************************************************************************** ****************** Living things are composed of lifeless molecules and have the capacity to extract and transform energy from their environment, which they use to build and maintain their own intricate structures from simple raw materials. All living organisms are predominantly constituted for carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, together with some organic elements like nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur. Compare and Contrast Directions: Compare and Contrast the following pairs of terms: 1. Element and Compound ___________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 2. Ionic bond and covalent bond ___________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 3. Acid and Base ___________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 4. Organic compounds and inorganic compounds ___________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 5. Polar and Non polar __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 16 Chemical Composition of Living Matter The tissues are made up of about 70% to 90% water and 10% to 30% solids. Of the solids 1% is inorganic and the rest are organic substances.  Water - All life forms from the simplest bacteria to the most complex multicellular plants and animals contain water. Human cells are composed 70% to 90% water that makes it an ideal medium for sustaining life. Water and its ionization product H+ and OH- are important in determining the structure and biological properties of macromolecules and micromolecules. - The structure of the water molecules gives water its unique properties. Water is a polar molecule which means that it has a region with a slight negative charge (the oxygen atom) and a region with slight positive charge (the hydrogen atoms) Within the cells - Intracellular water Outside the cell – Extracellular water a. Within the blood vessels – Intravascular water b. Between vascular spaces and the cell – Interstitial water - Functions: a. It is a universal medium in which the various chemical changes of the body take place. b. As a carrier it aids in digestion, absorption, circulation and excretion. c. It helps in the maintenance of the body temperature. d. Acts as a transporting medium for nutrients and all body substances. e. it plays an important part in mechanical functions, such as lubrication of joints and the movement of the viscera in the abdominal cavity. f. it aids in the elimination of waste products. 17  General Properties: a. Water has a unique property b. Water has exceptional solvent properties c. Water properties altered by solutes d. Water has high specific heat e. Water has high latent heat of vaporization f. Water has high latent heat of fusion g. Water has a high surface tension  Hydrogen bonding - The interaction between the partial negative charge on oxygen atom of one water molecule and the partial negative charge on oxygen atom of one water molecule and the partial positive charge on the hydrogen with a neighboring water molecule.  Ions - An ion is an atom or a molecule that does not have an equal number of protons and electrons. If the molecule has more electrons than protons it will be negatively charged and it is called an anion.  Polarity - A molecule with atoms of different electronegativity (electron withdrawing ability) has anisotropic charge distribution: part of the molecule has more electron density, or partial negative charge and part has less, or partial positive charge.  Electrolytes - Acid, base and salt under current process is known as electrolytes in the process of ionization.  Acid and Base -When some substances dissolve in water they break up into ion acids and bases are such substances – they are very important to living organism - Acids – release H+ ions when dissolved in water - Bases – accept H+ ion when dissolved in water - The pH scale runs from 0 to 14, 0-6 are considered acids (low pHs) 7- is neutral, 8-14 are considered bases (high pHs)  Organic Compounds (Nucleic Acid, Proteins, carbohydrates, fats and lipids) 18   Inorganic (Bulk elements N,Na,Mg,P,S,Cl,K, and Ca) required in relatively large amounts. Trace (iron, iodine, sulfates, phosphates, carbonates, etc.) Attributes of Life Some characteristics of Living Things that ensure survival are  Adaptation  Growth and repair  Reproduction  Metabolism  Regulation  All living organisms possess a characteristic size and shape  Responsiveness to stimuli or sensitivity 19  Topic 3. PYSICAL CHEMISTRY ***************************************************************************************************************************************************************** Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes in living organisms, including living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organims and living processes, by controlling information flow though biochemical signaling and the flow of chemical energy through metabolism, biochemical processes give rise to the incredible complexity of life. It deals with the chemistry of life, and as such it draws on the techniques of analytical, organic and physical chemistry. Solution, Suspensions and Mixture Sort the mixtures into solutions, suspension or colloids vinegar, mayonnaise, yoghurt, jelly, peanut butter, seawater, apple juice, cement, whipped cream, cheese, muddy water, paint, sand & water, chalk & water, milk, smoke, soda, oil & water, nail polish, ketchup, salad dressing, fruit juice, starch & water 21 Physical Chemistry  Biochemistry dealing as it does with the chemistry of living matter, requires the knowledge of physical chemistry and possibly all other branches of chemistry for the proper understanding of the biochemical processes.  is the study of how matter behaves on a molecular and atomic level and how chemical reactions occur. Based on their analyses Colloidal State of Matter The old method of grouping substances into colloids and crystalloids was based upon the ability of the substances to pass through parchment membrane. Those that diffuse readily through such membrane were called CRYSTALLOIDS, while those which do not were termed COLLOIDS. Concept of Classification The newer concept of classification is based upon the size of the particles of a solute (the dispersed phase) dispersed in the solvent (the dispersion medium). Dispersed Dispersed Name of Colloidal Example Phase Medium Solution Gas Liquid Foam Soap lather, whipped cream, soda water, froth Gas Solid Solid Foam Cake, Bread, Pumice stone lave Liquid Gas Aerosol Mist, Fog, Clouds Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, cream, butter, oil in water Liquid Solid Gel Curd, Cheese, Jellies, boot polish, butter Solid Gas Solid Aerosol Smoke, dust Solid Liquid Sols Paints, cell fluid inks Solid Solid Solid sols Alloys, colored glass, gem stones Colloidal State of Matter  Deals with different characteristics of substances or solutions. 2 types of mixtures a. Homogenous – one phase/ miscible b. Heterogeneous – particles can still be seen/ immiscible 23 General Properties a. Filtrability - The particles of colloids solution can pass through ordinary filter paper but not through parchment membrane. b. Negligible Osmotic Pressure - Colloidal solution has negligible osmotic pressure, they possess the same vapor pressure, boiling and freezing points as those of pure solvents, the particle in a colloidal solution is comparatively small. c. Tyndall Phenomenon - Colloidal solution manifests the Tyndall effect, that is, the path of a powerful beam of light through a colloidal solution appears strongly luminous when viewed at right angle. d. Brownian Movement - The suspended particles of colloidal solution are observed to be continuous, rapid vibratory motion. This is attribute to the incessant bombardment of the particles of the solute by the movement of solvent. 24  e. Electrical Charges - Colloidal particles especially suspensoids are electrically charged, the charge being distributed over the surface of the entire particle. The migration of particles either to positive and negative poles of an electrical-field is called electrophoresis. f. Surface Tension - The total surface area represented by colloidal particles is enormous composed to these of suspension. Surface tension may be measured by the use of a stalagmometer. g. Adsorption - accumulation of substances of the surface of solid or liquid. the greater the surface of the adsorbing agent the greater is the adsorption. Adsorption is increased by a rise of pressure. Adsorption is diminished by a rise in temperature. The process of adsorption brings substances nearer each other, thus promoting chemical reactions. 25 h. Chromatography - Chromatography is a technique used to separate and identify the components of a mixture of substances. I. Viscosity - Liquid tends to flow due to its fluidity. The resistance which a liquid offers to flowing is viscosity. This varies greatly with different liquids. Factors: 1. Temperature 2. Chemical nature 3. Colloids 4. Suspended particles j. Osmosis - Osmosis is the passage of water from a region of high-water concentration through a semi-permeable membrane to a region of low water concentration. k. Diffusion - Diffusion is the interpenetration of molecules between two substances, from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. This occurs whenever the solute distributes itself uniformly into the solvent. Atoms and small molecules can move across a cell membrane by diffusion. 26 L. Dialysis - When two different solution are separated by a membrane which allows the passage of the crystalloids but not colloids, dialysis occurs. Classification of Colloidal Substances a. Emulsiods b. Suspensoids EMULSOIDS  Are lyophilic, having affinity for the solvent.  Forming gel and swell when contact with large amount of water. (imbibition) - plays an important role in the normal state of the protoplasm. Increased imbibition leads to increased retention of fluid in the tissues producing edema.  Gels are made up of fibrillar structures surrounded by dispersion medium. - The larger aggregates of colloidal particles formed in the process of gel formation are called “MICELLES” Gels are freely permeable to non-colloidal ions and molecules. - Peptization- dispersal of a solid into colloidal state. (peptizing agent- water). - The gel however subsequently retracts giving off the imbibe water, a process termed, SYNERESIS. - The retraction of blood coagulum with the liberation of a straw-colored fluid (serum) is a good example. 27  - Thixotropy- transformation of gel when allowed to stand, after vigorously shaking transformed to a sol.  Have higher viscosity than that of the pure solvent, are not precipitated by the addition of salts in amounts that readily flocculate suspensoids - in order to precipitate -add sufficient/ large amounts of soluble salts “SALTING OUT” SUSPENSOIDS  Are lyophobic (no affinity for the solvent). Exhibit Imbibition and Syneresis. The colloidal state of suspensoids is rendered more stable by the addition of emulsoids. The latter produces a coating upon the surface of the lyophobic particles preventing them from coming contact with the electrolytes. Comparison of True Solutions, Colloidal Solutions and Suspension True Solution Colloidal Solution Suspension Size of particles 1 millimicron or less 1 to 100 millimicron Above 100 millimicron to 1mm Diffusibility and filtrability Passes thru Passes thru filters but Do not pass thru either membrane and filter not thru membranes Visibility Not visible Visible under ultra- Visible with microscope microscope or naked eyed Motion No visible Brownian movement Settles down Osmotic pressure High Low none Tyndall phenomenon None Exhibits None 28  Module 2 CARBOHYDRATES Topic Topic Title Time Duration 1 General Structures and Function 1 hour 2 Carbohydrates Metabolism 1 hour Learning Objectives: At the end of this module 2, you should Be able to: 1. Explain the meaning of Carbohydrate 2. Know the major sources of carbohydrates 3. Determine the function for carbohydrates in human body 4. Classify the different Classes of Carbohydrates 5. Distinguish the concepts of carbohydrates structure Carbohydrates are the most abundant class of bioorganic molecules on planet Earth. These are generally considered as substances made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in which the proportion of hydrogen and oxygen is the same as that found in molecules of water. Although their abundance in the human body is relatively low. Carbohydrates constitute about 75% by mass of dry plant materials. Human uses for carbohydrates of the plant kingdom extend beyond food. Carbohydrates in the form of cotton and linen are uses as clothing. Carbohydrates in the form of wood are used for shelter and heating and in making paper. 32  TOPIC 1. GENERAL STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS ***************************************************************************************************************************** ****************** What are carbohydrates? Carbohydrates give the body energy. They are the best source of fuel for the body. Carbohydrates also help to digest protein and fat. Half of our food should come from carbohydrates. If we eat more carbohydrates the extra is stored in the liver or in the tissues as fat. Carbohydrates are grains, fruits, vegetables, legumes and sugar. How carbohydrates from?  Using the sun’s energy and the green pigment in the plants called chlorophyll, plants convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen.  Glucose is the basic sugar molecule from which all carbohydrates 6H2 O + 6H2 O + energy chlorophyll C6 H1 2 O6 + 6H2 O (from sun) (from Glucose sun light) 34   First products formed in photosynthesis. substances made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are aldehyde or ketone derivatives of polyhydric alcohols, and are Therefore, term ALDOSES and KETOSE. aldoses (-CHO) (e.g., glucose), ketoses (C=O) (e.g., fructose) / Cn (H O)n. It is the most abundant organic molecules in nature “Hydrates 2 of carbon” Functions: - Provide a significant fraction of energy in the diet - Storage form of energy in the body - Component of the cell membrane that mediate intercellular communication - Structural component of many organisms. Basic Nomenclature - The formula for a carbohydrates Cx(H20) y where x> 3 may be simple, but there is a great deal of complexity in their structure. A monosaccharide is a basic unit of biological carbohydrates. They do not hydrolyze. Monosaccharide can be linked together by hydration (condensation) reaction to form a polymer. Disaccharide can be hydrolyzed to give two monosaccharides, trisaccharide’s hydrolyzed to give three monosaccharides, etc. - Oligomer and polymer are used to indicate molecules composed of linked units of simple constitution. This simple units are called monomers. A molecule composed of indefinitely repeating monomers is called a polymer. - Sugar Nomenclature: The suffix “ose” on a compound ‘s name indicates sugar. - For each monosaccharide to the growing polysaccharides, a water molecule is lost to the surroundings, hence “Dehydration synthesis” General Physical Properties  mono and disaccharides are white crystalline substances, starches are amorphous powder and cellulose are fibrous. They are sweet, soluble. Starches and cellulose are tasteless. Solubility to ordinary solvents. mono and di – are readily dissolved in water, starches are slightly soluble cellulose is insoluble, Simple carbohydrates are quick energy sources. The percentage of sweetness: Fructose (173.3%), Sucrose (100%), Invert sugar (127-130%), Glucose (74.3%), Maltose (32.5%), Lactose (16.0%) 35 Types of Carbohydrates Simple Carbohydrates  monosaccharides. disaccharides Complex Carbohydrates  oligosaccharides, polysaccharides A. Monosaccharides  they are simple sugars containing one saccharide group. they cannot change into simplier sugar upon hydrolysis. Is a carbohydrate that contains a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketone unit.  Simple sugars, such as glucose or fructose, consist of a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit. -Aldehydic monosaccharides are reducing sugars can be linked together by GLYCOSIDIC BOND, which hydrolyzed by acids not by bases. Pure monosaccharides are water-soluble, white, crystalline solids. Types of Monosaccharide 1. Glucose  most important sugar in human metabolism. Also known as “Physiologic sugar”, dextrose, grape sugar or corn sugar. It is soluble in hot or cold water. They are commercially prepared as corn syrup. Found in fruits, vegetables, honey.  Glucose is the chief end product of the digestion of Oligo and polysaccharides, in the form of carbohydrates circulating in the blood, and it is the primary carbohydrates utilized by the body. Carbohydrate form used by the body, referred to as “blood sugar”.  The term BLOOD SUGAR draws attention to the fact that blood dissolved glucose. The normal concentration of glucose in human blood is in the range 70-100 mg/dL (1dL=100 ml). Two hormones, INSULIN and GLUCAGON, have important roles in keeping glucose blood concentrations within the normal range, which is required for normal body function. Abnormal functioning of the hormonal control process for blood-glucose levels leads to the condition known as DIABETES. 36   Regulation of Blood Glucose 2. Fructose  highly soluble sugar that does not readily crystallize. Also known as Levulose or fruit sugar. It is the sweetest of all sugars and is found in honey, ripe fruits, and some vegetables. It is the product of hydrolysis of sucrose. Occurs naturally in fruits & honey, “fruit sugar” combines with glucose to form sucrose 3. Galactose  not found free in nature, its only source being from the hydrolysis of lactose. combines with glucose to form lactose, “milk sugar” 4. Mannose  of limited distribution if foods, is poorly absorbed, and is of little consequence in nutrition 5. Ribose  of great physiologic importance as a constituent of riboflavin and ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid. 6. Xylose and Arabinose- widely distributed in many root vegetables B. Disaccharides  composed of two sugar unit, are double sugars, on hydrolysis, they yield two simplier sugar. SUCROSE + WATER = glucose +fructose LACTOSE + WATER = glucose + galactose 37   Is a carbohydrate that contains two monosaccharides units covalently bonded to each other. Disaccharides are crystalline, water-soluble substances. Types of Disaccharides 1. Sucrose “Table Sugar” found in molasses, maple sugar and sorghum and is prepared commercially from sugar cane and beets. Sucrose cannot be absorbed by the intestine until it is converted by Sucrase into its components yield glucose and fructose on hydrolysis. 2. Maltose Malt or grain sugar, does not occur to any appreciable extend in foods. It is an intermediate product in the hydrolysis of starch. Maltose is produced in beer and malted breakfast cereals. It is also used with dextrin as the source of carbohydrates for infant feeding as it is not fermented readily. Hydrolyzed by maltose into two molecules of glucose. 3. Lactose “Milk Sugar” produce in mammals and is the only carbohydrates of animal origin that is significant in the diet. It is the least sweet among the common sugar and dissolved poorly in water. Lactose is slowly digested compared to other disaccharides. Lactose is an important ingredient in commercially produced infant formula that are digested to simulate the mother’s milk. C. Polysaccharides  are complex sugar, on hydrolysis, they yield many simple sugars/ mostly insoluble, non- fermentable. Poly (means made up of several saccharide groups) starch group, cellulose. Consist of long chains of monosaccharides. Polysaccharides (also called glycans) are long-chain polymers of carbohydrates and may be linear or branched. They are classified as homopolysaccharides or heteropolysaccharides. 38 Types of Polysaccharides 1. Starch storage form of carbohydrates in plants mostly in grains, tubers, seeds, roots and unripe fruits. Reserve food materials of plants. Composed of two polymers Amylose (linear and water soluble) amylopectin (highly branched and water soluble. 2.Dextrin Intermediate products in the hydrolysis of starch and consist of shorter chains of glucose units. Some dextrin is produced when flour is browned or bread is toasted. 3. Glycogen often called “animal starch” and is structurally similar to amyopectin but contains many branched chains of glucose. It is rapidly synthesized from glucose in the liver and muscles where it is stored. Muscle glycogen is used to supply during exercise and work; liver glycogen is converted to glucose for circulation to different parts of the body. 4. Cellulose Indigestible polysaccharides which resistant to the digestive enzymes of man and contributes bulk to the diet. Cellulose, the structural components of plant cell walls, it is most abundant polysaccharide. The ‘woody’ portion of the plants –stems, stalks, and trunks. Have particularly high concentration of their fibrous, water-insoluble substance.it serves as the dietary fibers. 5.Hemicellulose Indigestible polysaccharides found in agar, pectin, woody fibers, leaves and stems; can be hydrolyzed by diluted acids. 6. Pectin found mostly in fruits. Pectin possess the property of forming bulk by absorbing large amounts of liquid and swelling into a colloidal mass which exerts a laxative effect. In food cookery, it is important as a thickener, binder, an in forming food gels. 7. Inulin- Important in medicine and nursing as it provides a test for renal functions in the bulb of onion and garlic. 39 Structure of Carbohydrates Stereochemistry - are molecules with the same molecular formula and sequence of bonded atoms, but they differ in the way that the constituent atoms are oriented in space. Isomers Compounds that have the same chemical formula Glucose, Mannose, Galactose Genera Formula C H O 6 12 6 40 Epimers Differ in configuration around one specific carbon atom (with the exception of the carbonyl carbon) Glucose and galactose are C4 epimers, Glucose and mannose are C2 epimers. Enantiomers Special type of isomerism found in the pairs of structures that are mirror images of each other members of the pair are designated as D- or L-sugar. Majority of sugars in humans are D-sugars except for L-iduronic acid (found in glycosaminoglycans) D – Dextrorotatory, L – Levorotatory. Diastereomers Diastereomers are stereoisomers that are not mirror images of each other that is they are not linked with reflection operation unlike of enantiomers. They possess same physical properties. Anomers Is a type of geometric variation found at certain atoms in carbohydrate molecules. 41  C1 (aldose), C2 (ketose). The structures are designated as α and β configurations of the sugar α-D-glucose,β-D-glucose,Glycogen (α-D-glucopyranose), Cellulose (β-D- glucopyranose) Joining and Cleaving Sugar Molecule Digestion and Absorption Digestion  The purpose of carbohydrate digestion is to hydrolyze the di- and polysaccharides of the diet to their constituent simple sugars. This is accomplished by enzymes of the digestive juices and yields several end products. The principal site of carbohydrates is the small intestine but some hydrolysis of starch to maltose occurs in the mouth by the action of salivary amylase(ptyalin).  An continues until food mass is acidified in the stomach. Cooked starch is more rapidly hydrolyzed because the cell walls have been ruptures and the enzymes have more access to the starch granules. Disaccharides are produced with the mucosal cell and are 42  not secreted into the lumen of the intestine. The disaccharides are hydrolyzed within the brush border of the epithelial cell. Absorption The absorption of monosaccharides is complicated process. The simple sugars must enter the epithelial cell, and be transported across the cell. Process of Digestion and Absorption  The action of salivary amylase in the mouth begins to digest starch to shorter glucose chains.As soon as food reaches the stomach, stomach acid inactivates the amylase and proteases destroy the enzxyme.In the small inestine, pancreatic amylase completes the digestion of starch to maltose.  Specific enzymes digest diassacharides to monosaccharides, which are absorbed by the tiny microvilli.Intestinal cells, absorb glucose and galactosee through energy and sodium- dependent active transport channels. Fructose uses facilitated diffusion to enter the cell. All three monosaccharides use facilitated diffusion to move out the cell and into the bloodstream.  Once in the bloodstream, the monosaccharide travel to the liver via the portal vein. The liver can convert fructose and galactose to glucose. The liver may form glucose into glycogen, burn it for energy, or releasee it to the bloodstream for use in other parts of the body. 43  TOPIC 2. CARBOHYDRATES METABOLISM ***************************************************************************************************************************** ******************  Catabolism of Carbohydrates -This process releases stored energy from carbohydrates a. GLYGENOLYSIS b. GLYCOLYSIS  Anabolism of carbohydrates- this process consumes energy to build up complex molecules from simpler molecules. a. GLYCOGENESIS b. GLUCONEOGENESIS 46 Citric Acid/ Kreb’s Cycle Electron Transport Chain 47 Metabolic Reactions  Cellular Respiration - Reactions that together complete the oxidation of glucose , yeilding CO2, H20 and ATP.  Glycolysis- conversion of glucose to form pyruvate  Glycogenolysis- hydrolysis of glycogen to glucose monomers  Glycogenesis - polymerization to glucose to form glycogen  Gluconeogenesis - formation of glucose from noncarbohydrates  Kreb’s cycle - complete breakdown of pyruviv acid to CO2, yeilding small amount of ATP and reduced coenzymes  Electron Chain Reaction Energy-yeilding reactions that split H removed during oxidation to H and electron and create a proton gradient used to bond ADP to P1 forming ATP. Compartment of Cell Process/ Metabolic Process  Cytosol- Glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, pentose phosphate pathway, activation of amino acids, fatty acids synthesis, nucleotide synthesis.  Endoplasmic Reticulum- Glycoprotein synthesis, steroid synthesis, packing of biosynthetic production  Mitochondria- Krebs Cycle, ETC, oxidation phosphorylation, fatty acid oxidation, amino catabolism.  Nucleus- DNA replication, synthesis of RNA, mRNA and some nuclear proteins  Plasma membrane- Energy-dependent transport system such as Na, K transporting ATPase, amino acid and glucose transport systems 48 Name:___________________________________ Section:__________________________ Activity Glycolysis No. 2.1 Directions: Fill in the blanks for the questions related to the glycolytic pathway. 49  Module 3 LIPIDS Topic Topic Title Time Duration 1 General Structures and Function 1 hour 2 Lipids Metabolism 1 hour Learning Objectives: At the end of this module 3, you should be able to: 1. Explain the meaning of Lipids 2. Know the major sources of Lipids 3. Determine the function for Lipids in human body 4. Classify the different Classes of Lipids 5. Distinguish the concepts of Lipids structure Lipids known as fats provides a major way of storing chemical energy and carbon atoms in the body. Fats also surround and insulate vital body organs, providing protection from mechanical shock and preventing excessive loose of heat energy. Lipids are widely distributed in nature.. Did you know that the mix of different types of fats in our diet may affect heart health? Lets examine the fat content in food items by analyzing Nutrition Facts labels. Find the Nutritional facts label on one food item wrapper, choose four different fat-containing food items and determine a serving size for each so that the total amount of food you select contains one day’s worth of recommended dietary fats for a teen. When you are finished, write your food items and amount in the chart that follows 53  TOPIC 1. GENERAL STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS ***************************************************************************************************************************** ****************** Lipid It is an organic compound found in living organisms that is insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar organic solvent. Soluble in non-polar solvents and insoluble in polar solvents. Lipids are not polymers. The word “LIPID” comes from the Greek word “lipos” meaning fat or lard. Lipids are chemically heterogeneous mixtures. They are organic substances made up of fatty acids and their naturally existing compounds and derivatives. Lipids that are ester or amides of fatty acids Biochemical function  Energy-storage lipids (triacylglycerols)  Membrane lipids (phospholipids, sphingoglycolipids, and cholesterols)  Emulsification lipids (bile acids)  Messenger lipids (steroids hormones and eicosanoids)  Protective-coating lipids (biological waxes) Module 5 55   Fats are the most concentrated source of energy in foods. They constitute the body’s chief reserve of energy and essential for diverse function. Fats are valued of enhancement of food palatability. All body cells contain fat 18-25% of body weight. The term oil refers to the physical state of fats.  Fats that come from animals are generally solids at room temperature, and those from plants or fish are usually liquids. Fats float on water because it has a lower specific gravity than water. They range in size from about 10 to 20 carbons  Neutral ester of monobasic fatty acids with trihydric alcohol glycerol known as TRIGLYCERIDES. Fats and oils are made from two kinds of molecules: glycerol (a type of alcohol with a hydroxyl group on each of its three carbons) and three fatty acids joined by dehydration synthesis. Since there are three fatty acids attached, these are known as triglycerides. General Properties Physical  neutral/ true fats, greasy feel and when brought contact with a substance like paper, (translucent spot). Odorless, tasteless, colorless, they are soluble in chloroform, benzene, ether, boiling alcohol. non-volatile, produce characteristics crystals with a definite melting point Composition:  fatty acids (the building blocks of dietary fats) consist of chain series of carbon atoms with a methyl group at one end and a carboxyl group at the end. They are the product of hydrolysis. Chemical 1.Hydrolysis fats are readily hydrolyzed by acids, enzymes or super-heated steam with the liberation of fatty acids and glycerol. - lipolytic enzymes. Fats containing highly unsaturated fatty acids are neutral in action, but when exposed to air for sometime, they become acidic 56  due probably to hydrolysis which results the liberation of volatile fatty acids. These are subsequently oxidized with the formation of odiferous volatile aldehydes and ketones. Agents: The presence of an enzyme, heat, light, moisture, bacteria. 2. Saponification if instead of water in the above reaction, an alkali is used, a Metallic salt of fatty acid (soap) is formed and the process is called saponification. Na soaps are hard, K soaps are soft 3. Rancidity Fats containing highly unsaturated fatty acids, they are neutral in reaction but when exposed to air for some time, they become acidic due probably to hydrolysis with results in the liberation of volatile fatty acids. These are subsequently oxidized with the formation of odoriferous volatile aldehydes and ketones. Rancidity results in the destruction of the accessory in food like carotene, vitamin A, and vitamin E. Rancid is therefore, is not only unpalatable, but may even be toxic. Fatty Acids Building blocks of most lipids. Products of fat hydrolysis they are long chain organic acids having from 4 to 24 carbon chain with a single carboxyl group and a long non-polar hydrocarbons chain which makes lipids insoluble in water. It is the simplest type of lipid and are found as components in more complex lipids. It contains a long carbon chain attached to carboxylic acid group at one end, although the carboxylic acid is hydrophilic, the long hydrophobic carbon chain makes long fatty acids insoluble in water. Fatty acids may be “SATURATED or UNSATURATED”. Fatty acids are one component of soap Classification of Fatty Acids Fatty acids Saturated Unsaturated monounsaturated polyunsaturated 57 A. Structure of Fatty Acids  the general formula of CnH2nO2 containing single bonds. They have a low molecular weight, and are liquid at ordinary room temperature, low melting point and are volatile. B. Unsaturated fatty acids  They are unstable and reactive due to the presence of the double bonds in the molecules.  The reactively increases with the increase of the double bond. Insoluble in ordinary solvent They are liquid at room temperature and non-volatile. The greater the degree of unsaturation, the lower are the melting. capable of taking up a molecule of water, oxygen, hydrogen, bromine and iodine. Oleic acid is the most abundant fatty acids (50%)  In unsaturated fatty acids, there are two ways the pieces of the hydrocarbon tail can be arranged around a C=C double bond. In cis bonds, the two pieces of the carbon chain on either side of the double bond are either both “up” or both “down,” such that both are on the same side of the molecule.  In trans bonds, the two pieces of the molecule are on opposite sides of the double bond, that is, one “up” and one “down” across from each other. Naturally-occurring unsaturated vegetable oils have almost all cis bonds, but using oil for frying causes some of the cis bonds to convert to trans bonds.  However, if oil is constantly reused, like in fast food French fry machines, more and more of the cis bonds are changed to trans until significant numbers of fatty acids with trans bonds build up.  For this reason, the fatty acids with trans bonds are carcinogenic, or cancer-causing.  The hydrocarbon chains in these fatty acids are fairly straight and can pack closely together, making these fats solid at room temperature.  Oils, mostly from plant sources, have some double bonds between some of the carbons in the hydrocarbon tail, causing bends or “kinks” in the shape of the molecules.  Therefore, these oils are called unsaturated fats. Because of the kinks in the hydrocarbon tails, unsaturated fats can’t pack as closely together, making them liquid at room temperature. 58 Lipids that are ester or amides of fatty acids  Waxes are carboxylic acid esters where both are R groups are long straight hydrocarbon chain. Performs external protective functions.  Triacylglycerol – are carboxylic acid triesters of glycerol.  Glycerophospholipids- triesters of glycerol that contain charged phosphate diesters. They help to control the flow of molecules into and out of cell  Sphingomyelins – an amide derived from an amino alcohol, also contain charged phosphate diester groups. They are essential groups to the structure of cell membranes.  Glycolipids– amides derived from sphingosine, contain polar carbohydrate. On the cell surface, they connect with groups by intracellular messengers Lipids that are not esters or amides:  Steroids –They performs various functions such as hormones and contributes to the structure of cell membranes.  Eicosanoids – They are carboxylic acids that are a special type of intracellular chemical Classification of Lipids A. SIMPLE LIPIDS - these are generally esters of fatty acids and alcohols. The most common esters combinations of fatty acids and glycerol. These compounds, also referred to as neutral fats. Not easily degraded to smaller components B. COMPOUND LIPIDS  these are esters of glycerol and fatty acids, with substitution of other components such as carbohydrates, phosphate and /or nitrogenous groupings. Easily degraded to smaller components (fatty acid often) Phospholipids  Phospholipids are made from glycerol, two fatty acids, and (in place of the third fatty acid) a phosphate group with some other molecule attached to its other end. The hydrocarbon 59  tails of the fatty acids are still hydrophobic, but the phosphate group end of the molecule is hydrophilic because of the oxygen with all of their pairs of unshared electrons.  This means that phospholipids are soluble in both water and oil. They play an important role in the transport of fat to the different tissues and appear to be involved in its utilization.  An emulsifying agent is a substance which is soluble in both oil and water, thus enabling the two to mix. A “famous” phospholipid is lecithin which is found in egg yolk and soybeans Glycolipids - such as the cerebrosides contain a molecule of glucose or galactose. lipoprotein – include variety of lipid molecules bound to protein molecule in order to facilitate transport in the aqueous medium of the blood. are clusters of proteins and lipids all tangled up together. These act as a means of carrying lipids, including cholesterol, around in our blood. LIPOPROTEIN – carriers of cholesterol - There are four kinds lipoprotein a. Chylomicrons – produced in intestinal cells from dietary tissue b. VLDL (very low-density lipoprotein) – are produced in the liver from dietary constituents mainly of CHO. c. IDL (intermediate density lipoprotein) d. LDL (low density lipoprotein) – are produced in blood capillaries by digestion of the triglycerides of VLDL. (bad cholesterol) e. HDL (high density lipoprotein) – transfer an activator of lipoprotein lipase. (good cholesterol) Lipoproteins and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk  LDL is positively associated with CVD  HDL is negatively associated with CVD 60   To avoid arteriosclerosis, hardening of the arteries, diets which are low in saturated fatty acids as well as in cholesterol are recommended. Recommended blood lipids  Total cholesterol: