Bio 105 Exam 2 Study Guide PDF

To do: Go thru and summarize notes on google doc Upload notes to quizlet and do practice test Focus on plant biology Review exam 1 quizlet/notes Practice drawing 2 diagrams: carbon cycle + plant reproduction others : __...

To do: Go thru and summarize notes on google doc Upload notes to quizlet and do practice test Focus on plant biology Review exam 1 quizlet/notes Practice drawing 2 diagrams: carbon cycle + plant reproduction others : __ Print + re-do worksheets Kahoot study questions + jeopardy study questions Textbook problems if time In purple = what I recall! Topics summary: Community Ecology & Diversity Community change: Succession & Biogeography Primary vs. secondary succession Primary - occurs after major events (disturbances) that wipe out most forms of life (all plants/plant roots, animals, etc.) → bare ground left over ○ Ex: what occurs on bare ground left over after volcanic eruption, [another ex?] ○ Organisms that first establish are pioneer species? Secondary - establishment of primary species after pioneer species, long term arrangement ○ Sand dunes… 1 type of organism (sea grass?) benefits tree by preparing soil for trees to grow 3 different types of succession: ___, ___, ___, Biogeography… various amounts of energy availability across the planet?? _____ Energy Flow in Food Webs Different models of energy flow - Trophic level - energy becomes less available as you move up trophic levels - Primary producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, ___ Equation for assimilation of energy (not all energy is available for next trophic level):  - Ingestion - excretion? Climate Change and Carbon Cycle Same amount of carbon cycling throughout the biosphere/atmosphere at all times; problem with climate change is that too much carbon is in atmosphere, disrupting ordinary heating mechanisms - Trees, soil, ocean act as reservoirs of carbon Conservation & Threats to Biodiversity Invasive species Deforestation Total fertility rate/resource use → TFR of 2.3 for no population growth Plants Intro Eudicots vs monocots (division of flowering plants) Plants Structure & Function Characteristics of leaves, leaf venation, plant adaptations (stomata) Plant-animal interactions - Why is the world green? - Chemical and physical plant defenses protect against herbivores - Secondary plant metabolites Why is the world 2 hypotheses: green/why aren’t 1. Bottom-up controls: plants consumed by a. Host plant quality/quantity limits density of herbivores (applies to herbivores? primary producers only) b. Chemical and plant defenses protect against herbivores i. Secondary plant metabolites (bitter toxic chemicals) ii. physical/mechanical: spines, thorns, silica, hard shells, etc. 2. Top-down controls: a. Predators limit # of herbivores, which inc. host plant density b. Predators, parasites, disease keep herbivore #’s low Lecture 7 cont.: Plant-animal interactions How do predators Roughly parallel oscillation in abundance of snowshoe hares (prey) and Canadian and prey coexist? lynx (predator) - Prey dec., predators dec. - Prey inc., pred inc. - Pred. inc., prey dec. - Cycle repeats itself! Combination of bottom-up and top-down controls? In reference to oscillation of hare population: - Food supply hypothesis - hares consume vegetation, vegetation becomes limited when pop. is large, leading to crash in hare pop. (bottom up control) - Predation hypothesis - lynx cause 95% mortality of hares, predators kill more hares per day during peak hare population and hare pop. crashes (top down control) What are the Resource-based mutualism - both species receive a benefit in form of resource different types of transfer of energy and nutrients - example: one receives food, other receives service mutualisms - Leafcutter ants cut leaves/chew them to pulp underground→ fungi grow (associations w/in pulp, and fungi produce foods for ants between species in which both benefit) Defensive mutualisms - one species receives food/shelter in return for defending and examples of another species each? - Ex. - acacias and tree-dwelling ants; ants chase off herbivores, keep tree free of pathogens, keep other plants out in exchange for living on acacia tree - Red carpenter ant defends aphids on twigs; in return, aphids produce sugar-rich honeydew for ants Dispersive mutualism - one species receives food in return for transplanting seeds/pollen of other species - Ex. - blackbird eats seeds, excretes them in different places and allows for plants to grow there - Form of obligatory mutualism→ neither species can live w/o the other (in contrast to facultative mutualism →not required for survival, but still beneficial (ex- ants + acacia plants)) What are different Phoresy - one organism uses a second organisms for transportation types of - Hooked seeds of burlock get stuck in fur of mice and are transported; mice commensalism (in not affected which one partner “Cheating” on species – orchid without nectar mimics shape of female bee; male benefits while the bees copulate the orchid, transferring pollen, but get no nectar in return other is unaffected)? Lecture 8: Communities & ecosystems What is the Community - population of different species that live together and interact in same difference between space/time community, Community ecology - study the structure (# of different species and their community ecology, interactions) and dynamics of communities ecosystems, Ecosystem - includes both biotic and abiotic features ecosystem ecology? Ecosystem ecology - study of flow of energy/movement of matter - Production of biomass (g) - Total mass of living matter in given area (kg per m^2) Michigan ecosystems incl. temp decid. forests, bogs What is species Latitudinal gradient in species richness (# of species present in community – richness and how do remember, species diversity is more complex, measuring both # and abundance of communities differ species) in species richness? Topographical factor Low richness in arctic High richness in mountainous areas Low richness because of peninsular effect (see species distance hypothesis below → species richness decreases as function of distance from mainland) Very high richness in tropics General pattern: diversity decreases from tropics to poles What 4 hypotheses 1. Species-time hypothesis - species accumulate in a community over time due try to explain to speciation (development of new species via evolution) & immigration; community variation communities diversify with age in species richness? a. Evidence: tropical communities are older than temp. & polar What is evidence in communities because of historical glaciers during various ice ages favor of each? b. Relationships between age of trees & # of insects those support c. Drawbacks: doesn’t apply as well to marine environments (why didn’t marine organisms re-distribute themselves after an ice age?) 2. Species-area hypothesis - larger areas contain more species than smaller areas bc. they support more habitat types, more opportunities for immigration/specialization a. + relationship between total geographic area & # of insects it supports b. Drawbacks: doesn’t explain why more species aren’t found in vast continuous regions like Asia, tundra; marine ocean is continuous but has fewer species than smaller, tropical nearshore areas 3. Species-productivity hypothesis - greater primary productivity leads to greater species richness  a. Primary productivity = plant growth, influenced by temp and rainfall b. Warmer temps + more precipitation affects plant growth c. Explains high species richness in tropics d. Drawbacks: there are exceptions 4. Intermediate disturbance hypothesis - maximum diversity occurs @ intermediate levels of disturbance a. Disturbance = abiotic or biotic factor that temporary changes environmental conditions that causes a pronounced change in community b. K-selected species → don’t like disturbances, r-selected species do c. Why is an intermediate level of disturbance beneficial? i. If an area is getting disturbed too frequently, species can’t survive BUT if we never get any disturbance, environment becomes intensely competitive, precludes entrance of other species Does species Stability - when abundance of species in community stays relatively constant diversity contribute (unstable if there are lots of fluctuations) to community Diversity-stability hypothesis - communities w/ more species are more stable than stability? those w/ few species d. More species richness→more niches occupied → greater chance that community can withstand disturbances i. Ex. - if all species in a community are cold-intolerant and cold comes in, whole community wiped out; if more diverse, some species could survive e. More diversity → possibility of more positive/mutually beneficial interactions between species (mutualisms) How is diversity Diversity index - mathematical measure of species diversity in a given community measured? 2 components: 1. Species richness (S) = the number of different species in a community 2. Relative abundance (n) of each species in biological community Shannon’s diversity index - typically between 1.5 and 3.5 (higher the #, higher the diversity) 𝑆 𝐻' = − ∑ 𝑝𝑖 × 𝑙𝑛(𝑝𝑖) 𝑖=1 S= species richness pi = proportion of individuals of spp i (# ind in spp/total # ind) ln = natural log ∑ = “the sum of” Lecture 9: Succession & Biogeography How do primary & Succession - community change in species composition following disturbance secondary - Distinct stages, ending in climax community (a distinct end point of succession differ? succession) - Can return community from later to earlier stages but usually progresses in 1 direction Primary succession - succession on newly exposed site that has no biological legacy in terms of plants, animals, or microbes - Newly exposed or newly formed sites - colonized by living things for first time - no soil in place - Can take 100s of years if plants have to build up soil - Example - bare ground because of volcanic eruption or sediment after retreat of glaciers Secondary succession - succession on site that previously supported life but has undergone disturbance (fire, tornado, hurricane, flood) - Ex. - what occurs after farming has ended (abandoned farmland) Pioneer vs primary Pioneer species - species that are fast-growing, shade intolerant species Primary species - late successional species that are slow-growing, shade tolerant, and strong competitors Climax community: final stage of succession that remains stable until disrupted by a disturbance What are the Facilitation - assumes that each invading species creates a more favorable habitat mechanisms of for succeeding species succession? - Continues until most competitively dominant species has colonized, when community is at climax - Composition of climax community determined by climate, soil condition, frequency of disturbance - Example: primary succession on sand dunes - New sand dunes = hard for plants to colonize early colonizers (pioneers) like beach grass fix nitrogen to overcome lack of organic matter in sand dunes - Lake Michigan Dune Succession (Primary Succession) where pioneer plants like beach grass stabilize sand for soil to bind and increase capacity of sand to hold water; this allow shrubs and trees to establish - decay of pioneer species increases capacity of sand dunes to hold water → allows trees to take root (become the climax community) Inhibition - implies that early colonizers can prevent later arrivals from replacing them  - Early colonists exclude future colonists, for example by releasing toxic compounds or building physical obstructions (primary species can also inhibit pioneer species) - Primary mechanism in marine intertidal zone (limited space) - Green algae (Ulva) slows succession by inhibiting red algae growth (Chondracanthus) Tolerance - suggests early colonists neither facilitate nor inhibit later colonists - Any species can start succession - but have no effect on subsequent colonists; eventual climax community reached regardless - Early successional species - more likely to be weak competitors (relatively competition-intolerant) compared to later successional species - Succession in plant communities largely determined by species that already exist in ground as buried seeds/old roots 3 models are not mutually exclusive!! What models of - Glacier filling @ Glacier Bay - retreating via melting since 1774 succession does - Facilitation: Dryas and alders increase soil nitrogen, which increases Glacier Bay exhibit? establishment of spruce seedlings - Inhibition: Dryas and alders produce leaf litter that can inhibit spruce germination/survival How is succession Equilibrium model of island biogeography - on new islands, the balance btw affected by ability of emigration and immigration determines species richness nearby species (such - immigration/emigration → depend on island size, distance from mainland as mainland) to - Also applies to “virtual islands” (mountains surrounded by deserts, lakes colonize isolated surrounded by dry land, conservation areas surrounded by cities) areas (islands)? Makes 3 predictions: 1. Species-area relationship a. # of species inc. with inc. island size/area b. Extinction rates decrease on larger islands because population sizes are larger, less susceptible to extinction 2. Species-distance relationship a. # species decreases with inc. distance from mainland (source pool) b. Immigration rates inc. with decreasing dist. between island and mainland 3. Species turnover effect a. # of species can remain relatively constant but identity of species should change significantly over time b. Turnover eventually reduced with climax community – new immigrants can’t easily colonize c. Hard to test Energy flow & food webs What distinguishes a Food chain - linear sequence of energy flow between trophic levels food chain from a Main trophic levels w/in food chains: food web and what - Autotrophs / Primary producers (plants, algae, photosynthetic bacteria) are the various - Harvest light/chemical energy and store energy in carbon trophic levels compounds referenced in each? - Base of food chain - Heterotroph - must obtain 1 or more organic compounds from its environment; can’t produce organic molecules by using inorganic sources like light - Primary consumers (eat plants - herbivores) - Secondary consumers (eat herbivores →carnivores) - Tertiary consumers (feed on sec. consumers) - Detritivores - get energy from detritus (unconsumed plants that die and decompose, dead remains of animals, waste products) - Example - carrion beetles (feed on dead bodies of animals), decomposers (fungi, bacteria consume 80-90% of plant matter) Food web - more complex/realistic model; interconnected food chains with multiple links btw species; diagrams flow of energy (carbon) through trophic levels - Chain lengths are short in most (chain length = sum of total links btw trophic levels involved) - Why are chain lengths usually < 5? - Many organisms cannot digest all their prey; much energy in animals is used for maintenance/lost as heat! - Average of only 10% of available energy is transferred from 1 trophic level to the next → energy is loss as you go up a food chain/web What is production % of energy assimilated by organism that becomes incorporated into new biomass efficiency and which 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 Production efficiency = 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 100 organisms are more Example: net productivity = amount being used for building biomass production Assimilation = respiration + amount being used for building biomass efficient? Assimilation = total energy taken in by an organism; ingestion - excretion Invertebrates & microorganisms – most production efficient What is trophic level Energy flow between trophic levels, not just individual species transfer efficiency? 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑛 Trophic level transfer efficiency = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑛−1 × 100 What is the average - Average of only 10% between trophic levels value? What are some Cellular respiration & other similar processes to fuel metabolism reasons for energy Maintaining body heat loss between Indigestible bits trophic levels? Energy needed to make energy (some energy constantly being lost) Excretion Not ingested (eaten) in first place What are ecological Trophic transfer expressed in graphical form pyramids and what 1. Pyramid of numbers (uses number/abundance of organisms) → not always are different types? accurate because very large organisms (like oak trees) can have few #’s but support many organisms at higher levels 2. Pyramid of biomass (some exceptions) a. Biomass = total mass of living matter in a given area (g/m^2) b. Decomposers have equal amount of biomass at each level because they eat everything 3. Pyramid of productivity (energy) a. Can never be inverted What are the Know differences between production (amount of biomass), productivity (rate at different terms which biomass is produced), primary productivity (rate of new organic matter per associated with area of earth per unit of time) production? Gross primary production/productivity (GPP): amount/rate of CO2 fixed (taken in & converted to organic molecules) by a plant Net primary productivity (NPP): rate of primary production after costs of respiration are included 𝑁𝑃𝑃 = 𝐺𝑃𝑃 − 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠) Respiration - amount of CO2 lost from an org during metabolic activity Why does primary production vary over space? Liebig’s law of the minimum - biomass is the scarcest factor - Limiting resources (Nitrogen and phosphorous are often limiting factors for plant growth) Variation in production efficiency across organisms - vertebrates - 98% assimilated energy is lost to metabolism, leaving only 2% for growth/reproduction - Invertebrates - 80% assimilated but lost - Plants - 30-85% production efficiency (most efficient!) Lecture 11: Carbon cycle & climate change What are Biogeochemical cycle - chemical elements like carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) move biogeochemical from the physical environment to organisms and back to the environment cycles and how do - Continuous movement of elements they differ from Compared to energy flow through systems: energy flow through - Movement of energy - energy lost as it moves through trophic levels; trophic levels? replenished by sun’s energy - Movement of elements is a closed system, cycling indefinitely through Earth What are the largest Reservoir = place where large amounts of C are accumulating over time reservoirs of Examples: rocks, ocean, soil, fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas), atmospheric CO2, carbon? algae, Rocks = largest reservoir because turnover rate is so slow (living organisms are NOT large reservoirs because turnover rate is so fast) Turnover rate - average amount of time that carbon atoms stays a reservoir (entrance to exit) Fluxes - movement of C between reservoirs (shown by arrows on chart) - Decomposition and respiration - Burning of fossil fuels - Sedimentation forms fossil fuels - Photosynthesis (converting carbon in atmosphere into chemical sugars?) Which fluxes move the most carbon? - Photosynthesis and respiration in ocean - Largest human-caused flux = burning of fossil fuels Trees - good reservoirs of C because of rapid intake via photosynthesis and slow release (when tree dies/decomposes and when C is returned via respiration) How much impact 33% increase in carbon concentrations since 1957 are humans having on environment? Small oscillation is due to seasonal changes in photosynthesis (more C taken in during summer) What is the w/o greenhouse effect, temp would be inhospitably cold greenhouse effect? Effects of CO2 and other gasses on temperature 1. Solar energy arises 2. Small amount of energy reflected 3. Most energy hits earth and heats it up 4. Some energy longwave radiation escapes atmosphere 5. Much of longwave radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gasses and re-radiate towards earth Draw diagram!!! How are plants & In world of elevated CO2, plant growth should inc but herbivory will decrease herbivores - Plants increased in mass but nitrogen was diluted predicted to be - Insects had to eat more/died of nutritional deficiency (bottom up impacted by climate control) change (see leaf - and/or lead miners had to spend more time eating, increased time to miner mortality be eaten by predator (top down control) example)? Lecture 12: Impacts of biodiversity loss (not going to be covered much) Why should we care Indirect causes - population growth and resource use → consumption of forests, about biodiversity freshwater and what are Direct causes: examples of - Habitat loss, overexploitation, pollution, invasive species, climate change direct/indirect Overexploitation - hunting leading to extinction (dodo bird?) causes of Examples of invasive species: Burmese python, chestnut blight biodiversity loss? Lecture 13: Intro to Plants What are major Basis of ecological pyramid benefits of plants? Major reservoirs of C →Boreal forest sequesters about 11% of CO2 on plant Oxygen production Medicinal properties of plants (aspirin from willow, periwinkle for leukemia and lymphoma, etc.) Wetland plants - water filtration Amazon rainforest - transpiration alters climate Mangrove forests - hurricane mitigation (root systems absorb energy from waves, reduce extent of storm surge) What are the Eukaryotic - membrane-bound nucleus general Multicellular characteristics of a autotrophs/photosynthetic (mostly) plant? Cells walls; rigid, non living layer that surrounds plant cell and provides structural support + protection Plasmodesmata - small channels that connect plant cells, allowing transport and communication How do plants grow Alternate between phases that differ in chromosome number and develop? Haploid - a cell that contains ½ the number of chromosomes that a mature cell would have Diploid - mature cell; 2 copies of chromosomes (one maternal, one paternal) ** draw cycle, key processes + terms Chromosomes - contain DNA (genes) Homologous chromosomes - pairs of chromosomes with same pair of genes  Mitosis - cell division where a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells (2n) - Typically used for growth and repair Meiosis - cell division that produces four genetically diverse daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes (n) as the parent cell Fertilization - fusion of sperm and egg How do mitosis and 1. Diploid sporophytes produce haploid spores by meiosis meiosis work in the 2. Spores grow into gametophytes that produce gametes (egg/sperm) plant life cycle? 3. Fusion of egg & sperm during fertilization produces diploid zygote a. Zygote - single (diploid) cell 4. Zygote repeatedness divides via mitosis to form an embryo a. Embryo - multicellular stage that develops from the zygote by mitotic division Sporophyte –diploid (2n) cell stage - produces spores (cells that can divide without another cell) Gametophytes - haploid (n) cell stage - produce gametes (sex cells - egg and sperm) How do mature Zygote develops into sporophyte by mitosis (splitting of mature cell into 2 identical sporophytes daughter cells) develop? - Photosynthesis powers transformation of seedlings to mature plant What types of Both vegetative and reproductive growth growth do plants Vegetative growth - growth of leaves, seeds, stems (non-reproductive parts) undergo? Reproductive growth - growth of flowers and fruit → specialized for gamete production What are the two Cotyledons = seed leaves – divided based on this! main types of Monocots - one (mono-) seed leaf (ex. - grasses, orchid, banana) flowering plants and - # of flowering parts: usually 3 or multiple of 3 what are each - Arrangement of stem vascular bundles: scattered group’s distinctions? - Root system: fibrous, adventitious - Leaf venation: often parallel - # of pollen pores/slits: 1 Eudicots - two seed leaves (daisy, mint, apple, sunflower) - # of flowering parts: usually 4, 5, or multiples of these - Arrangement of stem vascular bundles: arranged in a ring  - Root system: branched, taproot - Leaf venation: netted or branched - # of pollen pores/slits: 3 or more How are seeds Reproductive structures produced by fertilization → usually result of sexual produced? reproduction contain embryo that develops into seedling upon germination How do seedlings From MERISTEMATIC tissue and mature plants Meristem - region of undifferentiated cells that produce new tissues by cell division grow and produce (mitosis) new tissue? What types of Root (__) meristems meristems do Shoot (apical) meristems mature cells have? What’s the Gymnosperms - non-flowering plants; produce naked seeds (not in an ovary) difference between - Usually found in cones gymnosperms and Angiosperms - flowering plants; produce seeds enclosed in ovary angiosperms? - Usually a fruit What are the levels Organ systems →organs →tissues → specialized cells of biological organization within Organ systems = collection of organs working together a plant? - In angiosperms, branches, buds, flowers, fruits, and fungi are organ systems Organ = tissues coming together What are the cell Parenchyma - no secondary cell wall (thin wall); living at maturity types (of ground - Function: storage (often starch), photosynthesis, metabolism tissue) within - Example: pulp of fruit (apples, pears), potatoes plants? - 2 support cell types: Collenchyma - irregularly thickened cell walls; flexible + living at maturity - Function: support - Ex. - strings in celery stalk Sclerenchyma - very thick cell walls; dead @ maturity; rigid + dead @ maturity - Function: support - Ex. - bark, woody stems, seed coat What are the Tissue = group of cells having similar structure and function different tissue Dermal - covers/protects plant; regulates gas exchange and water intake types within plants? Vascular - transports water, minerals, & sugars to different parts of the plant Ground - site for photosynthesis, provides a supporting matrix for vascular tissue; helps to store water and sugars SEE QUIZLET FOR REST OF QUESTIONS