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1a-1 1b-26 2a-45 Bangladesh Studies O Level (7094) Pilot Textbook 2b-51 Topic 1 (a) Influence of major cultural figures 2c-61 2d-66 3a-73 3b-86 Purpose of this chapter 3c-94 This chapter covers Topic 1 of the five History & Culture Topics in the syllabus for the 4a-106 Cambridge GCE Ordinary Level Bangladesh Studies (syllabus 7094, Paper 1). It introduces 4b-118 candidates to: 4c-129 5a-159 the influence of major cultural figures (Topic 1a) 5b-169 5c-177 a general background of key developments in Bengali language, literature, art, architecture, folk culture and other cultural practices that shape the culture of Bangladesh (Topic 1b). Teachers should note that the material provided here should form the basis of what is needed to answer the compulsory question in the examination. However, it is hoped that candidates will be able to draw on a wide variety of cultural experiences (by being exposed to poetry, song, dance, drama and local sites of historical interest) and on any other cultural figures to support their answers. Pictures of many cultural figures can be found in: http://banglapedia.search.com.bd Exam guidance Teachers should note that candidates should be familiar with the influence of key figures on the culture of Bangladesh. They may provide information on any key figures (e.g. those suggested in Section 1b) to support their answers, but to restrict demands made on teachers and candidates, the University of Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) has decided that specific questions will only be asked on the following major figures: Alaol Lalon Shah Mir Mosharraf Hossain Rabindranath Tagore  Begum Rokeya Kazi Nazrul Islam Jasimuddin Zainul Abedin. Candidates are not expected to have studied the works of such exponents in detail, but should be able to comment on their contribution to developments in, for example, language, literature, drama, dance, music, painting or architecture. Topic 1a: Influence of major cultural figures Alaol Summary A seventeenth-century poet who translated famous works in Bangla as well as writing his own songs and poetry. He has a prestigious library named after him. An aristocratic background Syed Alaol is one of the most famous Bengali poets of the Middle Ages. He was born around 1607 AD. There are disagreements over the place of his birth. Some scholars suggest that he was born in Chittagong while others say Faridpur. Alaol's father was a minister of Majlish Kutub, the ruler of Fatwabad (Fatehabad). Since he was born into an aristocratic family, Alaol received a good education in his early years. He learnt Bangla, Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian languages as well as the art of war and music. Captured by pirates On one occasion when Alaol was quite young, he was going to Chittagong with his father by boat. On the way, they were attacked by Portuguese pirates. The pirates killed his father and captured him. He was sent to Arakan in Myanmar. Young Alaol found work as a bodyguard in Arakan. Later he worked as a teacher of music and dance in a well-to-do family. His poetic talent soon became well known and he was able to secure a place at the royal court of Arakan where he received royal patronage. Among his patrons were Syed Musa (Royal Minister), Solaiman (Chief Minister), Mohammad Khan (Minister of Army), Majlis Nabaraj (Minister of Taxation) and Magan Thakur, the Prime Minister and the adopted son of the king's sister. Translations and original work Alaol was a prolific writer. His most significant contributions to Bangla literature were made through translations of famous works in different languages into Bangla. His masterpiece, Padmavati, is a translation of a Hindi poem Padmavat by Malik Mohammad Jayasi. Most of his other translations were made from Persian and include Saifulmuluk Badiuzzamal, Satimayana-Lor-Chandrani, Saptapaykar, Sikandarnama and Tohfa. But Alaol also produced his own original works. These include a number of songs, mostly vaishav, and a book on the art of music, Ragtalnama. Alaol is mostly hailed as one of the great poets who introduced romantic themes in Bangla poetry. Another characteristic of his works was that though they were mostly translated from other languages, his creative touch and unique style made the works essentially the property of the Bangla language. In addition to contributing to Bangla literature, Alaol also paid attention to questions of religion and morality, which were reflected in his Tohfa. An award in his name Alaol died around 1673 in Hat Hazari of Chittagong. A prestigious literary award in his name, Alaol Sahitya Purashkar, has been introduced to recognise important works in contemporary Bangla. Comprehension Questions 1. When did Aloal live? What interesting things happened to him in his life? 2. In which areas of culture did he work? 3. Some people say Aloal is not very important because he just translated the works of other people into Bangla. This is not a correct view. Write down three reasons why he deserves to be called a major cultural figure in the history of Bangladesh. Research Task How many names can you find of contemporary writers who have received the Alaol Sahitya Purashkar? Lalon Shah Summary A baul guru born in the eighteenth century who made a major impact through his songs about equality and the meaning of human life. Unusually, his work was not written down, but was passed on by his followers. Sketch of Lalon Shah by Jotinthranath Tagor from Banglapedia, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh Bauls Lalon Shah was a legendary baul of Bangladesh. Bauls are bands of people who compose and sing devotional folk songs in the villages. Though they are generally seen all over Bangladesh, they are mostly found in the districts of Kushtia, Meherpur, Chuadanga, Jhenidah, Faridpur, Jessore and Pabna. They do not follow any specific religious belief, neither do they believe in idol worship or differences in caste or creed. They are humanists who believe that all men and women are equal. They believe that nobody is a born baul, but one needs a baul guru to become a baul. Lalon Shah was one such baul guru. Research Task and Activity Find out more about the bauls of Bangladesh. Students can form groups and act out the induction of bauls by their spiritual leaders. Abandoned and a new community Very little is known about the family background of Lalon Shah. He is said to have been born in Harishpur village in Jhenidah district in 1772 AD. Some scholars say that he was born into a Hindu Kayastha family in Bhandara village in Kushtia district. Legend has it that when he was young, he caught smallpox and was abandoned by his community. He was picked up in a critical condition by a Muslim faqir called Siraj Sain who nursed him back to health. When he went back home he was not welcome by his community. So he returned to Siraj Sain and was inducted by him and came to be known as Lalon Shah Faqir. He married a Muslim woman and set up his ashram in the village of Chheuriya to compose and practise his songs. He had a considerable number of followers who included both Hindus and Muslims. Universal spiritual songs Lalon did not receive any formal education but he had extensive knowledge of Hindu and Muslim religious traditions. He composed about two thousands spiritual songs The contents of his songs, though composed in simple words, speak of his deeper understanding of the meaning of human life and the philosophy of equality and non-communalism. Lalon's songs were created in a rural context, but the message these songs conveyed was universal in nature. Therefore he gained popularity not only among ordinary countrymen, but also among the educated urban people. It is this universal message which made Lalon's song spread far and wide but also last through the centuries. This is why Lalon had influence not only on his great contemporary, the poet Rabindranath Tagore, but also on many creative minds of today's Bangladesh. There are no written copies of Lalon s songs, but they were later transmitted orally by his disciples. Lalon died on 17 October 1890 at his ashram in Chheuriya. Comprehension Questions 1. Lalon Shah was a baul guru. What does this mean? 2. Lalon Shah did not have a formal education, so why was he able to be so influential? 3. Describe at least two ways in which we can prove that Lalon was very influential. Research Task Find out some of the singers of Lalon's songs. Discussion Question Choose a partner. Here are two statements: 1. Alaol was much more important than Lalon Shah in our cultural heritage. 2. Lalon Shah was much more important than Alaol in our cultural heritage. 3. Pick one statement each and try to persuade your partner that your statement is the correct one. Mir Mosharraf Hossain Summary A nineteenth-century novelist and playwright who wrote for over 50 years on history and Islamic beliefs. He used satire to criticise wrongs in society. He has a statue erected to him in Kolkata. Picture: You can find a picture of Mir Musharraf Hossain in Banglapedia and Prothom Alo (Dhaka newspaper) in Eid Issue (November 2003) Magazine. Zamindar family Mir Mosharraf Hossain is a well-known novelist, playwright, essayist and journalist of the nineteenth century. He was born in a zamindar family in 1847 AD at Lahiripara of Kushtia. All about Mir Mosharraf Hossain's life can be found in his autobiography Amar Jiboni (My Life) and his wife's biography, Bibi Kulsum. Mir Mosharraf Hossain's early education began at home where he was taught Arabic and Persian. He learnt Bangla at a pathshala (village school). His formal education took place at Kushtia School and Krishnanagar Collegiate School. Later on he was admitted into Kolkata Kalighat School but could not complete his studies. Religious themes Hossain started writing when he was a boy of thirteen or fourteen and kept writing until his death. His contribution to Bangla literature is significant for a number of reasons. He mostly wrote on popular themes in the history and belief of Islam. His Bishad Shindhu, in which he narrates the tragic tale of the Battle of Karbala, is considered to be a masterpiece. His other works focusing on the life and history of Muslim people include Moulud Sharif, Hajrat Omarer Dharmajiban Labh, Bibi Khodejar Bibaha and Madinar Gaurab. Peasant uprising While Hossain focused on religious themes, he was equally interested in the everyday life of his fellow countrymen. For instance, his Zamindar Darpan was written against the background of the peasant uprising against the landlords in Sirajganj 1872-73. He was also critical, in his book Gokul Nirmul Ashonka, of the excessive zeal in the killing of cows as he feared that this could have adverse effect on agriculture. Satires Another important contribution of Hossain was made in the successful use of satire in which he exposed the follies and vices prevalent in the contemporary society. His best known satires are Udashin Pathiker Moner Kotha and Gazi Miar Bostani. Journalism Hossain also worked for newspapers as a journalist. He was a reporter for Sangbad Prabhakar, a newspaper from Kolkata and Grambarta Prakashika, a paper from Kumarkhali. He later edited two newspapers called Azizannehar and Hitakari. He often wrote under the pseudonym, Mosha. He also wrote textbooks, such as Musalmaner Bangla Shikha. Mir Mosharraf Hossain died on 19 December 1912. A few years after his death, a statue of him was erected at the Bangiyo Sahitya Parishad building in Kolkata. Comprehension Questions 1. How can we tell that Mir Musharraf Hossain was very talented even at an early age? 2. Mir Musharraf Hossain produced many different kinds of works. List the different types of writing he did. 3. Do you agree that Mir Musharraf Hossain was a very conservative man who was reluctant to criticise others? Explain your answer. Research Question Mir Musharraf Hossain wrote 'satires'. Look up the meaning of this word and explain it. Can you find any other people in Bangladesh who have written 'satire'? Expressing an opinion You have to prepare a speech for an important meeting. You will be talking on 'Mir Musharraf Hossain was a great man'. The problem is that the other speakers have over-run their time. You have only 45 seconds for your speech! What will you say in that time? Rabindranath Tagore Summary A nineteenth and twentieth-century writer of poetry, plays, novels and songs who won the Nobel Prize for Literature and was knighted by King George V. He wrote the national anthem of Bangladesh. Picture: You can see a picture of young Tagore in Banglapedia and on http://www.newagebd.com/aug1st03/060803/lit.html Rabindranath Tagore was the most versatile personality of Bangla literature. He was not only a great poet but also a prose writer, composer, painter, essayist, philosopher, educationist and social reformer. He wrote in Bengali as well as in English. The Tagore household: a mixed cultural atmosphere Rabindranath was born on 7 May 1861 at Jorashanko in Kolkata. He went to different prestigious schools including Oriental Seminary, Normal School and St Xavier's School. However, young Rabindranath did not like the monotonous rules and regulations of school life and he left school when he was about fourteen. He learnt his lessons at home. Different tutors taught him physics, maths, history, geography, music, art, wrestling, gymnastics, the sciences, Sanskrit, literature and English. At the same time, Rabindranth's family, best known as Tagore, organised literary gatherings, Bidvajjan Samagam, to which prominent writers, journalists and thinkers of the time were invited. The Tagore household had a mixed cultural atmosphere where ancient Indian Vedic literature and Sanskrit were studied alongside modern European literature. In general, Rabindranath was brought up in a very liberal and culturally minded family. In addition, this family had made great contributions in the emergence of the 'Bengal Renaissance' which attempted to combine traditional Indian culture with Western ideas. A nice description of Rabindranth's home atmosphere and upbringing could be found in his autobiographical sketch, Amar Chelebela. An early start! Rabindranath wrote his first rhyme when he was seven years old. His first poem, Abhilaash (Desire), was published in 1874 in a magazine called Tattobodhini. Within a short period he published a series of poems in different periodicals. These included Bhanusingher Padavali, which he wrote under the pen name of Bhanusingha. Bhanu is a synonym of Rabi which means the sun and Singha is a synonym of Nath which denotes somebody from an aristocratic family. Rabindranath's first book of poems was published in 1878 when he was 17 years old. In the same year, he was sent to England to study law but he did not complete his studies there and returned home two years later.' When he returned home he had a knowledge of the new era of intellectual and scientific development in Europe to add to his deep understanding of the cultural heritage of India. He was set to start his great career in Bangla literature. Between 1884 and 1890, Rabindrath published a series of books of poems: Chhabi O Gan (1884), Prakrtir Pratishodh (1884), Kadi O Komal (1886), Mayar Khela (1888) and Manasi (1890). In the same period, he published essays, critical articles, fiction, etc.' About the same time, he published two novels, Bouthakoranir Hat (1883) and Rajarshi (1887). Experiencing the real world The most creative phase of Rabindranth's life began when he returned from a second visit in England in 1890. On his return he was given charge of his father's estates in different parts of Bengal, mostly Silaidah in Bangladesh. During this time, Rabindranath had the opportunity to see the everyday life of ordinary people very closely. This made him concentrate less on producing work from his imagination and instead look more to the real world. At the same time, he began to appreciate the natural beauty of Bangladesh. While travelling by a boat on the Padma, he was able to view the river, its sandbanks, flora and fauna, sunrises and sunsets, the poverty and simplicity of the people who lived by the banks, and the passions that swayed them closely. All of these things found their way into his fiction and verse. Two of his most important contributions to Bangla literature, Galpaguchchha and Sonar Tori, were written about this time. While Galpaguchchha' was a collection of short stories, the Sonar Tori was a collection of poems. His other publication of the 1890s included Chitra (1896), Kalpana (1900), Ksanika (1900), and Katha O Kahini (1900). In fact, by 1900, Rabindranath had written seven volumes of poems and forty-four short stories. Picture: You can see a manuscript of a poem in Tagore's own handwriting on http://members.tripod.com/scohel/page31.html Santiniketan In 1901 Rabindranath left Silaidah and settled in Santiniketan in Birbhum of West Bengal. There, he established Santiniketan, one of his outstanding achievements in the field of education. His aim was to provide a place for learning where the students would be at one with nature and learn in a practical as well as spiritual manner. The idea was that the student would live a simple life close to the teachers as well as the surrounding natural world. Assisting Rabindranath in running Santiniketan was a Roman Catholic Vedantist priest named Brhamobandhav Upadhyay. The priest first called the poet, Viswa Kavi (world-poet). In 1921, Santiniketan became an international university and came to be known as Viswa Bharati. Sadness and honour Rabindranath's wife died in 1902. One of his daughters died a few months later. His father passed away in 1905 and his youngest son died in 1907. These terrible years made the poet very sad and this sadness was reflected in his poetry. Gitanjali (Song Offerings), published in 1910, was a reflection of his mental state. He translated these verses into English for which he won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1913. He was the first Asian to receive such an honour. He was knighted by King George of Great Britain in 1915, but denounced his knighthood in 1919, when a British general attacked unarmed Indian demonstrators on 13 April 1919 at Jallianwala Bagh at Amritsar. Discussion/Reflection Question Rabindranath Tagore denounced the knighthood that was conferred on him because of the British behaviour at Amritsar. If you were knighted and became 'Sir' and were famous, would you be prepared to give up this honour? If so, what might make you do it? Productive until the end Rabindranath kept writing till he breathed his last. In the last decade of his life he wrote the books of verses, poems written in prose format, which included Punashcha, Shes Saptak, Patraput, Shyamali and Prantik. About this time, he also composed some wonderful dance dramas such as Chitrangada (1936), Shyama (1939), and Chandalika (1938). Images of nature are given musical form in Nataraj (1926), Navin (1931) and Shravangatha (1934). During this time, he also wrote three novels such as Dui Bon, Malancha and Char Adhyay. Rabindrath was also an amateur painter. He started painting in 1929 at the age of 68. Many of his paintings could be found in museums in India and abroad. In 1940, the University of Oxford conferred him with Doctorate of Literature at a special ceremony in Santiniketan. He passed away on 7 August 1941. Research Question The events at Amritsar in 1919 are amongst the most shameful in the history of the British in India. Use the internet to research what General Dyer did which so angered Rabindranth. Overall influence Rabindranath has written over a thousand poems and over two thousand songs on various topics, ranging from patriotic to religion, love and nature. He has composed the music of most of his songs. He has written innumerable short stories and more than two dozen plays and playlets, eight novels and many books on philosophy, religion, education and social topics. He is, perhaps, best known for writing Amar shonar Bangla, ami tomay bhalobashi (My Bengal of gold, I love you), the national anthem of Bangladesh: Translated by Professor Syed Ali Ahsan: My Bengal of gold, I love you Forever your skies, your air set my heart in tune as if it were a flute, In Spring, Oh mother mine, the fragrance from your mango-groves makes me wild with joy- Ah, what a thrill! In Autumn, Oh mother mine, in the full-blossomed paddy fields, I have seen spread all over - sweet smiles! Ah, what a beauty, what shades, what an affection and what a tenderness! What a quilt have you spread at the feet of banyan trees and along the banks of rivers! Oh mother mine, words from your lips are like Nectar to my ears! Ah, what a thrill! If sadness, Oh mother mine, casts a gloom on your face, my eyes are filled with tears! Before Rabindranath, Bengali was written in the ancient form based on classical Sanskrit. He wrote in the common language of the people. He introduced new prose and verse forms and the use of colloquial language into Bengali literature. At that time, this was something hard to accept among his critics and scholars. But in a very short period of time his style was enthusiastically emulated by most of his contemporaries as well the generation of writers that followed. Rabindranath is considered to be the most influential poet and writer of Bangla literature. But his self-less humanism, love of nature, timeless spirituality and concern for the prospect and predicament of the human civilization have made him the one of the most respected personalities of the world. Comprehension Questions 1. How did Rabindranath's life as a child help prepare him for a career as a writer? 2. Name writings by Rabindranath in as many different areas as you can (e.g. poetry, novels, songs). 3. Why was Rabindranath's work in Santiniketan important? 4. How did the events of 1902-1907 influence Rabidranath's writing? Remembering the work of a great man It is August 1941 and you have just heard the sad news of the death of Rabindranath. Your local newspaper knows that you are an expert on history and has asked you to write an obituary for the paper. It wants to know about:  His early life His work His achievements His honours But they have told you that they have created a space for 175 words no more, no less. So get working! Begum Rokeya Summary A writer and educationalist with an interest in social reform who helped paved the way for women to play a greater part in society. Picture: You can find a picture of Begum Rokeya at Banglapedia and at http://www.emory.edu/ENGLISH/Bahri/Hossain.html Roquiah Khatun, commonly known as Begum Rokeya, was a writer, educationist and social reformer.' At a time when Muslim women were not expected to come out of purdah, she pioneered education amongst the Muslim women of Bengal. A conservative upbringing Rokeya was born in 1880 at Pairaband in Rangpur district. She was brought up in a conservative Muslim family which, keeping in conformity to the purdah system, did not consider girls fit for an English education. Rokeya, therefore, remained confined at home along with her sister to study subjects of religious interest such as Arabic. Rokeya's brothers, particularly her eldest brother, Ibrahim Saber, taught her English and Bangla. They also inspired her to write. The only chance Rokeya ever got of studying was with an English lady in Kolkata. But she had to stop her lessons because of family and social disapproval. In 1897, Rokeya married Syed Sakhawat Hossain, a highly educated gentleman and a government officer. Syed Sakhawat, like his brothers, encouraged Rokeya to study English and Bangla and inspired her to read literary works from home and abroad. He also inspired her to write. She started writing in 1902 and continued to do so as long as she lived. Speaking out Rokeya used various forms of literature to express herself. She wrote short stories, poems, essays, novels and satirical writings. Her writings were full of humour and logic. She started writing in different leading literary magazines. She wrote her first story, Sultana's Dream, in 1905 and it was published as a book in 1908. She later translated it into Bangla. Abarodhbasini (The Secluded Women, 1931) is a spirited attack on the extreme forms of purdah that she felt endangered women's lives. Her other noted works include Matichur (essays lst vol 1904, 2nd Vol. 1922), Padmarag (novel, 1924), Delicia Hatya (translation of the Murder of Delicia, by Mary Corelli), Jnan-phal (The Fruit of Knowledge), Nari-Sristi (Creation of Women), Nurse Nelly, Mukti-phal (The Fruit of Emancipation) etc. Rokeya also wrote fine poetry. Her poem entitled Saogat was published in 1918 on the first page of the first issue of the Saogat, a literary magazine in Kolkata. Rokeya wrote on a wide range of subjects: social prejudice, adverse effects of the purdah system, women's education, social repression on women, women's rights and her progressive views of women's awakening. She also wrote against the tradition of childhood marriage and polygamy. An educationist While Rokeya used her power of writing in encouraging her fellow women towards education and a productive life, she at the same time put her ideas into practice as an educationist. Her commitment to women's' education led her to establish a girl's school in Bhagalpur and afterwards in Kolkata, which was named after her husband.' At first she found it difficult to get Bengali girls as students because of the conservative mood in the society. However, she was so committed to her purpose that she went from house to house to persuade people about the importance of education. He also tried to convince them that purdah and education could go hand in hand. She was eventually successful in getting so many students in her school that she had to move to a different location with larger accommodation. An activist Begum Rokeya was not only a creative writer and educationist, but also an activist. In 1916, Begum Rokeya founded an organisation called Anjuman-e-Khawatin-e-Islam (Muslim women's society) to make women aware of their rights. The society was at the forefront of the fight for women's education, employment and their legal and political rights. The society defrayed the cost of education for a large number of girls and arranged marriages for many poor girls. It gave shelter to orphans and the destitute and extended financial help to widows. It also established some businesses for women to earn economic independence. Begum Rokeya died in 1932 on 9 December, the same day she was born, She is still fondly remembered not only for her creative ideas and writings for the improvement of her society but also for the way she put her thought into practice. Comprehension Questions 1. Why was it difficult for Rokeya to obtain an English education? 2. How did Rokeya's husband help her in her work? 3. What examples can you find which prove that Rokeya was a determined woman? Research Question Many Muslim women of Bengal were not commonly permitted to go out for education before the time of Begum Rokeya. They had to stay in purdah. Find out about the purdah system and how the Bengali Muslim women spent their time in this period. Discussion/Reflection Question If someone asked you whether' Begum Rokeya should be remembered most for her writing, her work in education or in women's rights, what would you say? You will need to prove what you say by referring to her role in all three areas. Kazi Nazrul Islam Summary A twentieth-century poet and musician who became the National Poet of Bangladesh and who revolutionised the style of Bangla music and literature. He was imprisoned for his anti- British writings but continued to flourish until 1942 when he was seriously disabled by illness. Picture: You can see a picture of Nazrul in his younger days at Banglapedia and at: http://www.geocities.com/Paris/Louvre/2618/Nazrul.html Kazi Nazrul Islam is known as the National Poet of Bangladesh. He brought about revolutionary changes in the spirit and style of Bangla literature and music. Early struggles Nazrul was born on 24 May 1899 at Churulia village in Burdwan district of West Bengal, India.' Nazrul's family was poor and his father died when he was only nine. Therefore, he had not even completed his primary education before he had to go through a lot of struggle for existence. Later he worked as a teacher of a village maktab, a custodian of the shrine of a saint and as a muezzin in a village mosque before he joined a leto group. Leto was a mobile musical troupe which roamed around singing and acting in the countryside. He soon became the main poet of the group and made his place there by composing a number of folk plays. Between 1910 and 1917, Nazrul was able to return to school and studied until Class X. However, he could not pursue his education further because he did not like the rules and regulations and he had financial difficulties. During this time, he worked as a cook at the house of a railway guard and later at a tea stall at Asansol. Thus the young Nazrul, aptly nicknamed 'Dukhu Mia', experienced the harsh realities of life in the very early days of his life. The beginnings of his literary activities During the First World War, in 1917, Nazrul joined the Bengal Regiment of the British Indian Army. He was in the army for two and a half years and rose from an ordinary soldier to a havildar (battalion quartermaster). His literary activities began when he was posted in Karachi Cantonment. During his stay in the army, Nazrul learnt Persian from the regiment's Punjabi moulvi, practised music with other musical-minded soldiers to the accompaniment of local and foreign instruments. At the same time he pursued literary activities in both prose and poetry which were published in different literary magazines. Baunduler Atmakahini (Autobiography of a Vagabond), his first prose work, was published in Saogat, a reputed literary magazine in Kolkata.' His first poem to be published was Mukti (Freedom). With the end of the war, Nazrul returned to Kolkata to start a career in literature and journalism. In 1920 he became a joint editor of Nabajug, an evening daily published by A. K. Fazlul Haq, the well-known politician. While Nazrul worked as a journalist, he wrote numerous poems in different literary magazines and secured his place in the literary world of Kolkata. At the same time, he met with prominent writers, poets and other literary figures of the time, including Rabindranath Tagore. Tagore and Nazrul maintained a close contact till the former died in 1941. Influences on him During this time, the political situation was very volatile in India. Everywhere, the Indians were involved in the non-cooperation and khilafat movement against the British Raj led by Mahatma Gandhi. He wrote many poems and articles in support of the struggle against the British. He wrote against the injustice, the oppression, the exploitation and the violence that was carried out all over India. He was concerned about the landless farmers and the workers and fought against social injustice through his writings. In this he was influenced by the socialist revolution in Russia that took place in 1917. He wrote his famous revolutionary poem, Bidrohi (The Rebel) in 1921. He also wrote Bhangar Gaan, Proloyollash and Kamal Pasha. Some of these poems were published in his famous book of poems, Agnibina (The Fiery Lute). Agnibina created a stir in Bangla literature and proved to be a turning point in Bangla poetry, in terms of both content and style. Its first edition was sold out soon after publication, and several editions in quick succession had to be printed. Reactions Nazrul was arrested in 1922 for his anti-colonial writings. He was sentenced to a year of rigorous imprisonment. While in jail, he went into a 40-day hunger strike to protest against the mistreatment of political prisoners. During this time, Rabindranath Tagore sent his famous telegram to Nazrul that said: 'Give up hunger strike, our literature claims you.' So he stopped and continued to write while he was in jail. Nazrul married Pramila, a girl from a Brahmo famil,y in 1924, despite a lot of disapproval from society.' Many of his love songs and poems, some of them being collected in his first book of poetry, Dolon Champa, were inspired by his relationship with Pramila. Political involvement Towards the end of 1925, Nazrul formally joined politics and attended political meetings all over Bengal. Apart from being a member of the Bengal Provincial Congress, he played an active role in organising the Sramik-Praja-Swaraj Dal. On 16 December 1925, Nazrul started publishing the weekly Langal, with himself as chief editor. The Langal was the mouthpiece of the Sramik-Praja-Swaraj Dal, which aimed to end class differences in society. The manifesto of the party, which was published in the paper, demanded full independence for India. At this time Nazrul published his book Samyabadi O Sarbahara containing songs for workers and peasants. Among Nazrul's other publications about this time were an anthology of short stories, Rikter Bedan, and four anthologies of poems and songs: Chittanama, Chhayanat, Samyabadi and Puber Hawa. Chittanama was a collection of songs and poems that Nazrul had composed on the sudden death on 16 June 1925 of Deshbandhu Chittaranjan Das, pioneer of the cause of Hindu-Muslim unity. A flourishing career Nazrul's career continued to flourish, and he was involved in a variety of activities ranging from a recording artist, a composer, a music director, a singer, a poet and a story writer. He also acted in films, plays and performed on the radio. Nazrul was particularly keen on composing various forms of songs and he is said to have written even more songs than Rabindranath Tagore had. A long illness and honours In 1942, Nazrul became ill and this led to the loss of his voice and memory. He was treated at home and abroad, but his condition became worse. Financially, Nazrul's family went through a lot of hardship as he was the only earning member. Nazrul was awarded the Jagattarini Gold Medal by Kolkata University. He was awarded the 'Padmabhushan' title by the Government of India in 1960. In 1972, when Rabindranath's Amar Shonar Bangla was declared as the National Anthem of Bangladesh, Nazrul's famous and rhythmic song, Chal Chal Chal, was declared as the battle song of Bangladesh. In the same year, Nazrul and his family were brought to Dhaka, by an agreement between the governments of Bangladesh and India. During the War of Liberation, the Freedom Fighters were inspired by the rebellious and patriotic songs of Nazrul which were aired by the Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendra (Independent Bangla Radio Station), a radio station that was set up in India to inspire the freedom fighters. Picture: You can see a picture was taken of the ailing poet on his birthday in 1972 on: www.pabna.net.ni.htm At this time Nazrul could neither speak nor hear. He was conferred an honorary DLitt degree by the University of Dhaka in 1974. He was granted citizenship of Bangladesh in January 1976 and came to be known as the National Poet of Bangladesh. In February the same year, he was awarded the Ekushe Padak, one of the most prestigious literary awards in Bangladesh. Nazrul died on 29 August 1976, but in reality he had remained completely silent and inactive for 34 years since his illness in 1942. He was buried at Dhaka University Mosque as he had wished, with one of his ghazals (Moshjideri pashey amar kobor dio bhai). Comprehension Questions 1. Nazrul made a contribution in many different areas. List them. 2. Why was he imprisoned and why did he go on a hunger strike whilst he was in jail? 3. What do you think Tagore meant when he told Nazrul to call off his hunger strike because 'our literature claims you'? 4. Why was there a lot of disapproval regarding Nazrul's marriage to Pramila? Activity: Conferring an honorary degree In 1974 Nazrul was given an honorary degree by Dhaka University. Imagine that you are making the speech explaining why he deserves the award. What would you say? Your researches have shown that he was sometimes known as 'Dukhu', which means sadness and sometimes as 'The Rebel Poet'. In your speech explain why either title might be appropriate. Research Task A. K. Fazlul Haq was to become an extremely important man in the history of Bangladesh. Find out as much as you can about him. Jasimuddin Summary A twentieth-century poet and scholar of literature who focused on rural life and won many awards for his work. Jasimuddin, from Banglapedia, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh Jasimuddin, a renowned poet and scholar of literature, was born on 1 January 1903 in the village of Tambulkhana in Faridpur district. Jasimuddin started his formal education at Faridpur Welfare School and then he went to Faridpur District School where he completed his matriculation, or secondary level education, in 1921. He passed IA (Intermediate of Arts) from Rajendra College and gained his BA and MA from Kolkata University. Work in Kolkata and Dhaka Jasimuddin started his career as a collector of folk literature. He was appointed to this job while he was working as a research assistant at Kolkata University. He joined Dhaka University as a lecturer in 1937 and worked there until 1944 when he joined the government Department of Information and Broadcasting. Jasimuddin's poetic talent developed in his student life. He wrote the famous poem, Kabar (the Grave) when he was a college student. The poem was included in school textbooks (Bengali syllabus for the matriculation examination while Jasimuddin was still a student at university. A rural poet Jasimuddin emerged as a poet among the rural people of Bangladesh. He had spent most of his childhood, adolescent and youthful years among the farmers in the countryside. His writings reflect the freshness and natural beauty of the rural world, as well as the life of the ordinary peasants with their sincerity and simplicity. He is called the Palli Kabi (Poet of the Countryside). His first book of verse, Rakhali (Shepherd) was published in 1927. Some of his famous books are Nakshi Kanthar Math, Shujon Badiyar Ghat, Matir Kanna and Bagalir Hashir Golpo. Nakshi Kanthar Math and Bangalir Hashir Golpo have been translated into English as Field of the Embroidered Quilt and Folk Tales of Bangladesh respectively. Among these, Nakshi Kanthar Math and Shujon Badiyar Ghat are unique in terms of style of presentation as well as the way they explore the heart of picturesque rural Bangladesh.' Honours In 1969 Jasimuddin was awarded the DLitt by Rabindra Bharati University. He also won several other awards, including the President's Award for Pride of Performance (1958), Ekushey Padak (1976) and Swadhinata Dibas Puruskar (posthumous, 1978). In 1974 he was also selected for the Bangla Academy Award but refused it. Jasimuddin died in Dhaka on 13 March 1976 and was buried in his village. Comprehension Questions 1. Which poem did Jasimuddin write when he was a student? Where was it included? 2. Why is rural life the main theme of his poetry? 3. Why is Jasimuddin called 'Palli Kabi'? Research Question Jasimuddin's most famous work is 'The Grave'. Find out as much as you can about it, including the message Jasimuddin was trying to give when he wrote it. Testing your friends An excellent way to learn information is in the form of a quiz. Our section on Jasimuddin is quite short, so your friends should not have great difficulties learning about him. Get a small group together, give them 5 minutes to learn the material, then give them a test. But be careful, you might have to give a prize to the winner! Zainul Abedin Summary A twentieth-century artist who won a first class degree in art from Kolkata and studied at the prestigious Slade School of Art in London. He was particularly moved by famine scenes in 1943, which he recorded. He was awarded the title 'Shilpacharya' in 1967. Picture: You can find a picture of Zainul Abedin at Banglapedia and at: http://www.pimediaglobal.com/projects/art/zainul More interested in drawing than studies! Zainul Abedin was an artist of exceptional talent and international fame. He was born in Kishoreganj, Mymensingh, on 29 December 1914. He was admitted to the Government School of Art in Kolkata in 1933 and graduated with a first class degree in 1938. After graduation he joined the same institution as a teacher. As a young boy, Zainul was more interested in drawing than his studies. He would draw pictures in his textbook during lessons. He was greatly inspired by the river Brahmaputra and the surrounding countryside. This is reflected in a series of his watercolour drawings which pay tribute to the river Brahmaputra. He earned the Governor's Gold Medal in 1938 for these paintings in an all-India exhibition. The Great Famine In 1943 the Great Bengal Famine of 1943 killed about three million people. Zainul was touched by the devastation of the Famine which was caused by the colonial policies and other reasons during the World War II and drew a series of sketches depicting the misery. Though Zainul had little material help to offer to the starving, helpless people, he paid his greatest tribute to the famine victims through his famous famine sketches.' He drew the sketches on cheap, brown packing paper with Chinese ink and a flat brush used for oil painting. This was Zainul's way of showing the world what the starving and dying Bengal people were going through. Picture: You can see one of these sketches in a book called Zainul Abediner Shara Jiban, by Hashem Khan (publisher: Farid Ahmed, Somoy Prakashan, 38/2Ka, Banglabazar, Dhaka). The move to Dhaka and a new institute After the partition of India in 1947, Zainul left Kolkata, came to East Pakistan and settled in Dhaka. He joined a school as a drawing teacher. At that time there was very little artistic activity in East Pakistan. He, along with some friends, tried to convince the government to start an art institute. He was given the responsibility of establishing the Government Institute of Arts and Crafts in Dhaka. It started on 30 September 1948 in two rooms of the National Medical School. It was the first art school of East Pakistan and he was made the Principal- designate of the Institute. Eventually this institute grew in reputation and size to be known as the Institute of Fine Arts The Great Master of the Arts In 1951, Zainul attended the Slade School of Art in London, for a two-year training programme.' In 1959, his contributions were recognised by the highest award for creative artists from the Government of Pakistan, Hilal-i-Imtiaz. He denounced the title in 1971 during the War of Liberation. He was awarded an Honorary D. Litt. degree by the University of Delhi in 1974. He was also a Visiting Professor of Fine Arts at Peshawar University in 1965 and in Dhaka in 1973. He was appointed a National Professor of Bangladesh in 1974. Zainul retired from the post of Principal of the Government Art College in 1967 and devoted himself to painting. He was given the title, Shilpacharya, the Great Master of the Arts, in the same year for his artistic and visionary qualities. Scrolls In 1970, he organised the nabanna festival at the Shilpakala Academy. He drew a 65-feet long and 6 feet wide scroll called nabanna (in Chinese ink, watercolour and wax), in celebration of the mass movement of 1969, in which he depicted the story of rural Bangladesh in phases. He started it with the abundance of golden Bengal when people were happy and in peace and went on to show how the same Bengal became impoverished under the colonial rule and the Pakistan regime and finally reached a pitiable state of poverty. In the same year, Zainul painted another scroll, the 30 feet long and 6 feet wide Manpura, named after an island in the Bay of Bengal. This black ink drawing over wax outlines depicted the devastation of the terrible cyclone of 1970. Illustrating the constitution Soon after the liberation of Bangladesh, Zainul was invited by the Government to illustrate the Constitution of Bangladesh which he did along with three other artists. They used folk art and designs from nakshi kantha, the famous embroidered quilts made by rural women of Bangladesh. Galleries In 1975, a year before his death, Zainul Abedin set up the Folk Art Museum at Sonargaon and the Shilpacharya Zainul Abedin Sangrahashala, a gallery of his own works in Mymensingh. The Folk Art Museum was set up to preserve the rich but dying folk art of Bangladesh. Features One of the characteristics of Zainul Abedin's paintings is the black line. He has made use of the line in many of his sketches including the Famine Sketches. He has painted in a wide variety of styles. After his return from Slade School of Art, he began to draw in a new 'Bengali' style, where folk forms with their geometric, sometimes semi-abstract representations, the use of primary colours and lack of perspective were prominent features. Some of his well known paintings are Dumka (watercolour 1951), Santals: Return (watercolour 1951), The Rebel Crow (watercolour 1951), Two Women (gouache 1953), Painna's Mother (gouache 1953) and Face (oil painting 1971). His last days Zainul Abedin died of cancer on 28 May 1976. He drew his last painting, Two Faces, while he was lying sick at the PG Hospital just before he died. He was buried in the campus of Dhaka University, beside the Dhaka University mosque, with access from the Institute of Fine Arts which he had founded. Comprehension Questions 1. Why did Zainul sketch scenes from the Great Bengal Famine of 1943? 2. Why was Zainul called Shilpacharya? 3. What other great honour was shown to Zainul shortly after the liberation of Bangladesh? 4. Name 5 of Zainul's best known paintings. Research Task Find out more about the famines of 1943 and the plight of the people. A poster in praise of Zainul Zainul was a highly talented artist, so it is only fitting that we commemorate him with a picture. Your task is to use a poster to praise Zainul's contribution to the art of Bangladesh. But take care! Sometimes 'less is more effective' on a poster. So you might want to avoid putting too much detail on your poster and just concentrate on two or three main points. Summing it up in a spider diagram! We have studied 8 key cultural figures in this section. To help you remember their details, draw a 'spider diagram' for each one. Write his or her name in the centre of a piece of paper and then have 5 'legs' of your spider going out to boxes. Those boxes should have headings: Biographical details (when born, where lived etc) What influenced them (life in the country, teachers etc) What were their most important contributions?  Examples of their work For the fifth box write '5 key points about X'. Now all you have to do is fill it in! Bangladesh Studies O Level (7094) Pilot Textbook Topic 1 (b) General background Purpose of this section This section covers the: development of Bengali literature, language, art and architecture from ancient times to contemporary Bangladesh contribution of folk culture and other cultural practices in shaping the culture of Bangladesh. Exam guidance Questions in this section will be more open-ended and of a general nature, and will allow for a wide variety of examples to be used to support answers. Although candidates may draw on their knowledge of the contribution made by any cultural figures, a knowledge of the contribution of the following may prove useful (exam questions will not be asked specifically on them): Farrukh Ahmed Abbas Uddin Ahmed Munir Chowdhury Michael Madhusudan Dutta Jabinanda Das Ahsan Habib Sufia Kamal Hasan Raja Zahir Raihan  Muhammad Shahidullah S.M. Sultan. Teachers should make full use of poetry, dance, song, drama and visits to local historical centres to enhance learning. The emergence and development of Bengali language, literature, art and architecture Language Summary Bangla is spoken by about 230 million people. It has three main periods in its development (1000-1350 AD, 1350-1800 AD, 1800-modern day). Various versions of Bangla are spoken or written today. Bangla is the state language of Bangladesh. It is the administrative language of the Indian states of Tripura and West Bengal as well as one of the administrative languages of Kachar district, Assam. Bangla speakers number about 230 million today, making Bangla the seventh most spoken language after Chinese, English, Hindi, Urdu, Spanish, Arabic and Portuguese. Phases of Bangla The existence of the earliest form of Bangla language could be traced as far back as 1000 AD. The period between 1000 AD and 1350 AD is regarded as the old phase of the evolution of Bangla. The earliest example of old Bangla is to be found in the Charyapada, a collection of poems written by Buddhist monks. The period between 1350 AD and 1800 AD is considered as the medieval phase for Bangla. Examples of the early form of medieval Bangla include translations of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, Vaishnava lyrics, poetical biographies of Sri Chaitanya, narratives and Purbabanga-Gitika. Some Sultans of the pre-Mughal periods patronized many of these works. During the Mughal period, an influx of Perso-Arabic words took place into the evolving vocabulary of Bangla. The modern phase of Bangla language starts from approximately 1800 AD with the influence of English and this phase is now continuing. The dominant form of pre-modern Bangla was poetic, but in the modern phase, the prose form of Bangla gradually emerged. During this period, Bangla borrowed words from Sanskrit, English and other European languages. During the 19th century, the efforts of Bengali writers contributed to the further growth of the language. Among them were Raja Rammohun Roy, Bhabanicharan Bandyopadhay, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar, Bankimchandra Chattopadhyay, Michael Madhusudan Dutt and Mir Mosharraf Hossain. In the twentieth century, writers such as Rabindranath Tagore and Pramatha Chowdhury helped turn everyday spoken Bangla into a written language. Dialects and styles Much of modern day Bangla comes from Sanskrit and there also Persian and English influences. The Bengali speaking people are accustomed to various dialects that differ from division to division and from one district to another. People speak in dialect at home, but generally use spoken Bangla outside and standard colloquial Bangla for academic and literary purposes. Usually, standard Bangla is used in literary and artistic work, plays and mass communication, but recently the use of dialects in these activities has increased. There are two separate styles of writing Bengali scriptures: formal (sadhu) and informal (chalit), but most are written in chalit. The alphabet consists of 11 vowels and 39 consonants, making a total of 50 letters. Comprehension questions 1. Which other languages have contributed to the Bangla language? 2. Why do you think there are so many differing forms of Bangla? Literature Summary Bangla literature dates back to around 650AD, though we do not have much information on that period. Between 1200 AND 1800 AD, Bangla literary activity developed rapidly and in the early part of these years received patronage from the Muslim rulers. The modern day era of Bangla literature has seen a movement away from western influences to greater interest in Bangla literature as a whole, stimulated to a large extent by the birth of Bangladesh in 1971. Periods Bangla literature has a very old and rich history which can be divided into three periods: ancient, medieval and modern. For the ancient period, roughly between 650 AD and 1200 AD, we do not possess much information or examples of literary works. The most famous specimen of poems of ancient Bangla that have come down to us are the 47 spiritual hymns now known as charyapada, composed by Buddhist monks. Because the language of these hymns is only partly understood, it is called sandhya or twilight language. In the medieval period of Bangla literature, between about 1200 AD and 1800 AD, literary activities grew enormously. This is seen in many different ways: Various anecdotes, rhymes and sayings particularly in relation to agriculture, as seen in the verses of Dak and Khana. Vaishnava poetic narratives which tell of the romantic relationship between the Purnaic characters of Radha and Krishna. The greatest of Vaishnava writers was the poet Baru Chandidas, who translated poet Jaydev's Sanskrit lyrics about Radha and Krishna into Bangla. Patronage from Muslim rulers ' particularly Sultan Alauddin Hussein Shah, his son Nasrat Shah and commander-in-chief, Paragal Khan. The 45-year rule of the Hussein Shah dynasty (1493-1538) in Bengal not only led to political, social and cultural prosperity, but also nurtured Bangla language and literature. It was during the rule of Hussein Shah that some Bengali poets began composing lyrics in special poetic form, known as Brajabuli. At the same time, the Bengali poets started translating famous works from Sanskrit. This period also saw poems written on popular themes of Muslim culture. The greatest contribution of the Muslims to Bangla literature during this period was, however, the introduction of narrative and romantic poems, many of them being translations or adaptations of Arabic or Persian romances. The modern period of Bangla literature started during the British colonial period. There were many influences during this time: Between 1800 and 1850, Christian missionaries and Sanskrit scholars made an important contribution in their prose writing. Important writers at this time were William Carey (published Bangla translation of Bible in 1800), Raja Rammohan Roy (expressed his thought on social reforms in prose), Peary Chand Mitra (wrote the first novel in Bangla, Alaler Gharer Dulal).  Between 1850 and 1900, Bengali writers, influenced by Western thought and literature, created novels and poems. One of the most important literary figures of this period is Bankim Chandra Chattapadhyay who wrote fourteen novels some of which became famous. Dinabandhu Mitra wrote the famous Nildarpan (1860), which depicts the merciless exploitation of Bengali farmers by English indigo traders. The play played a significant role in ending indigo cultivation. At the end of the nineteenth century, Rabindranath Tagore played a significant part in developing Bangla literature (see Section A). Following Rabindranath, many writers were influenced by the socialist revolution which took place in the Soviet Union and this can be seen in the work of people such as Kazi Nazrul Islam and Sukanta Bhattacharya. More recent times have seen the political division of Bengal and of Bangla literature into the literature of West Bengal and the literature of East Bengal/East Pakistan. In this period amongst the most important prose writers are Kazi Abdul Wadud, Dr Muhammad Shahidullah, Abul Fazal and Ahmed Sharif. Some important novelists are Kazi Imdadul Huq (Abdullah) and Shahadat Hossain. Important poets of the time include Abdul Quadir, Bande Ali Miah, Benajir Ahmed, Jasimuddin, Ahsan Habib, Syed Ali Ahsan, Hasan Hafizur Rahman, Farrukh Ahmed and Golam Mostafa, Apart from writing poetry, Golam Mostafa also wrote Vishwanabi (1942), a fine biography of the prophet of Islam. The most significant and creative phase of Bangla literature, not only of Bangladesh but also of Bangla literature as a whole, started after the birth of Bangladesh in 1971.' Every branch of Bangla literature now saw renewed interest. Some of the writers and poets you may hear of include: Poetry: Al-Mahmud, Shamsur Rahman, Abdul Mannan Syed, Syed Shamsul Huq, Rafiq Azad, Shahid Qadri, Abu Hena Mustafa Kamal, Nirmalendu Goon, Mahadev Saha, Abul Hasan, Alauddin Al Azad, Farhad Mazhar, Humayun Azad, Khondakar Ashraf Hossain, Rudro Mohammad Shahidullah, Ruby Rahman, Quazi Rosy and Masud Khan. Plays:' Syed Shamsul Huq, Momtajuddin Ahmed, Abdullah Al-Mamun, Mamunur Rashid and Selim Al-Din. Novels and stories: Shawkat Osman, Selina Husain, Shawkat Ali, Akhteruzzaman Elias, Abu Zafar Shamsuddin, Abu Rushd, Alauddin Al-Azad, Humayun Azad, Syed Shamsul Huq, Hasnat Abdul Hai, Bashir al-Helal, Humayun Ahmed, Rizia Rahman, Rahat Khan,' Nasrin Jahan, Imdadul Huq Milon and Taslima Nasrin. Of course, there are many others! Comprehension Questions 1. Why do we know so little about Bangla literature before 650AD? 2. Why were the Muslim rulers important in the medieval period of Bangla literature? 3. What impact did the creation of Bangladesh have on Bangla literature? Research Task Pick one poet, playwright or novelist from the medieval period and one from the modern period. Find out as much as you can about their lives and contribution to Bangla literature. The Arts Summary Music, painting, drama and dance all play a part in the culture of Bangladesh, as do the traditional practices of Jatra and Alpona. Music Music has a rich and diverse tradition. Various forms of Bangla music that developed over time included the following: Kirtan: songs in praise of God, gods and goddess and their attributes. Kavigan: These poetic songs date back to around the 18th or 19th century, and the singers of these songs were called kaviyals. The kaviyals, who knew religious texts and rural life very well, had to compose questions and answers as they performed. They depended on ready wit and skills in producing verse to defeat their rivals in these poetic contests. The noise and tempo of drums, kansi, bells, or mandira rose up or went down in tune with the debate. Jatra song: The jatra song originated in Bangladesh in the 16th century. Jatra actually means a procession or other musical or dramatic performance that takes place in a temple during puja or other festivals. Though jatras also contained dialogue, song and dance were the most common.  The pala or ballad: These songs were written between the 16th and 18th centuries and are an important part of our folk culture. Some of the most well known ballads of Bengal are the Maimansingha Gitika and Purbabanga Gitika. The history of all aspects of life in Bengal is found in these ballads. Some of the popular Bangla ballads include Mahuya, Maluya, Kanka o Lila, Kajalrekha, Chandravati, Kamala, Deoyan Bhabna, Dasyu Kenaramer Pala, Rupavati, Deoyan Madina and Alal-Dulaler Pala. These ballads were not just popular oral performances, they have also inspired both plays and movies. Classical music: Songs based on classical ragas became popular in Bengal towards the end of the 18th century. Ustad Alauddin Khan and Ustad Ayet Ali Khan are two names in classical instrumental music who are internationally known. Early modern songs: The urbanisation that started in the early years of the 19th century saw the beginning of modern Bangla songs. Rabindranath Tagore, Dwijendralal, Rajanikanta, Atulprasad and Nazrul Islam are still held in considerable regard as they combined attractive tunes with meaningful lyrics. Although other poets tried to copy this ideal, the songs of these five poets, who draw from both classical and folk traditions, are unique. Nazrul Islam was the first to break free from the overwhelming influence of Rabindranath Tagore. One of his main contributions was to the development of the Bangla ghazal. Modern songs: Modern songs drew many talented singers, varied themes, tones and style. Some of the most famous names you may hear are Hemanto Mukherjee, Kishore Kumar, Satinath, Manna De, Lata Manjeshkar, Addul Jobbar, Sabina Yasmin, Runa Laila, Abida Sultana, Abdul Hadi, Fakir Alamgir, Sadi Mohammed, Sahnaj Rohomotullah, Andrew Kishore and Mahamudduzzaman Babu. One variant of modern songs are the pop and band songs which are also becoming popular. Bangladesh has a good number of musical instruments originally ofher own. Originally country musical instruments include banshi (bamboo flute), dhole (wooden drums), ektara (a single stringed instrument), dotara (a four stringed instrument), mandira (a pair of metal balls used as rhythm instrument), khanjani, sharinda, etc. Nowadays, western instruments such as guitar, drums, saxophone, synthesizer etc. are beingused alongside country instruments. Painting There is a rich traditionof paintingin Bangladesh which was pioneered by Zainul Abedin (see Section A), Kamrul Hassan, Anwarul Haque, Shafiuddin Ahmed and S.M. Sultan. Other famous artists of Bangladesh you may have heard of include Abdur Razzak, Qayyum Chowdhury, Murtaza Baseer, Aminul Islam, Debdas Chakraborty, Kazi Abdul Baset, Syed Jahangir and Mohammad Kibria, amongst many others. Drama Drama in Bangladesh has an old tradition and is very popular. In Dhaka more than a dozen theatre groups have been regularly staging locally written plays, as well as those adopted from famous writers, mainly of European origin. Popular theatre groups are Dhaka Theatre, Nagarik Nattya Sampraday and Theatre. In Dhaka, the Bailey Road area is known as Natak Para, where drama shows are regularly held. The Public Library Auditorium and Museum Auditorium are famous for holding cultural shows. The Dhaka University area is a pivotal part of cultural activities. Dance Bangladeshi dance is based largely on the classical form of dance as seen elsewhere in the sub-continent. There are also influences from folk, tribal and Middle Eastern dance. Among the tribal dances, particularly popular are Monipuri and Santal. Rural girls are in the habit of dancing that does not require any grammar or regulations. Bangla songs like jari and shariare presented with dance by both male and female performers. Jatra Jatra (folk drama) is another form of traditional culture. It draws from mythological episodes of love and tragedy. Legendary plays of heroism are also popular, particularly in the rural areas. Even just a few decades ago, jatra was the most popular entertainment in the countryside. Gradually, western forms of plays are replacing the traditional cultural forms like jatra. Alpona Traditional art and paintings include the alpona as one of the major art forms, which is a fantastic collection of designs and motifs put together in geometrical shapes. These motifs reflect the flora and fauna of Bangladesh. Alpona, which was once restricted to rituals held in the villages only, has now become a part of modern art and craft. No Bengali Hindu or Muslim wedding is seen without the drawing of alpona. On every Ekushe February, many streets and walls in the country are marked with alpona. Chitro Other forms of art and drawing, collectively called the chitro,' include: Ongo-Chitro - body painting Chal Chitro - making of clay sculptures  Deh-al Chitro - painting of designs on walls Ghot Chitro - pot painting Ghuri Chitro - kite painting Krira Pot Chitro - scroll paint about games Piri Chitro - wood painting Pot Chitro - fabric painting Shara Chitro - painting of pot and pan lids Kurundi Chitro - soft-reed painting Kushti Chitro - drawing of genealogical tables of horoscopes Mukush Chitro - mask painting. Comprehension Questions 1. What different types of music are commonly heard in Bangladesh? 2. Name three places well-known for holding drama productions. 3. How can we tell that Alpona is very important in the culture of Bangladesh? Research/Own Environment Question Culture does not exist in books; it exists in the real world. Write a short account explaining when you have seen examples of the above cultural pursuits in action. Perhaps it was on an outing with your parents, or a school trip, or a special family occasion. Architecture Summary As you look around you, be aware of a variety of influences ' ancient Buddhist sites and Hindu temples, distinctive Bengali mosques from the Sultanate period, small-scale imitations of grand Mughal monuments, the majestic British colonial buildings and landmarks of Bangladeshi independence. Ancient period Bangladesh is a land of rivers, some of which have changed their courses over time and in that process destroyed many ancient buildings and relics. However, from the evidence which has survived it is clear that Bangladesh as West Bengal of India is rich in architectural heritage. The most famous architectural site of ancient Bengal can be found in Mahasthangarh, which represents the earliest and the largest archaeological site in Bangladesh.' Mahasthangarh consists of the ruins of the ancient city of Pundranagara, situated in Bogra district. Mahasthangarh was important from fourth century BC during the Mauryan empire and continued to be so throughout the medieval period. A wide range of architectural relics and sites including Buddhist monasteries, Hindu temples and mosques, can be found there. Hiuen Tsang, the famous Chinese traveller, visited the city in the middle of the 7th century and expressed his admiration. The royal palaces, mansions, state secretariat, luxurious villas, ornamental temples, assembly halls etc. portrayed in the old literature reflects a glowing picture of life at Pundranagara, and the writings of Sudhyakara Nandi in the twelfth century gives a brilliant account of its architecture. Sultanate period The architecture of the early Muslim period was most characterised by mosques and tombs. The conquerors built mosques to arrange for praying and to gain popularity. The Sufis or the preachers of Islam also built mosques wherever they went to preach. During the Hussain Shahi dynasty, Bengali architecture developed a style of its own, distinct from the various regional styles of India. Though Bengali architecture was influenced by the architecture of the Middle East in the beginning, by the middle of the fifteenth century, it showed independence from external influence and more close to local forms.' The mosques built during the Sultanate period were divided into several categories, such as square single, multi-domed, or rectangular multi-domed. Some of the vaults were in the form of typical Bengali huts with quadrilateral sloping roofs. Some of the single or multi-domed structures had verandahs in the front. The roofs were almost always curved, with the four corner towers rising only up to roof level. There were examples of Arabic calligraphy inserted in the wall facing the west called the Qibla wall, which faces the direction of the holy Kaaba. Hanging chandeliers were distinct features found in the mosques. The monuments were ornamented with intricate designs and terra cotta plaques. Some of the famous and architecturally significant mosques include Adina Mosque at Hazrat Pandua (1375), Khalifatabad Mosque (mid-15th century), Gunmant Mosque (mid 15th century), Tantipara Mosque (c 1480), Darabari Mosque (1479), Chhota Sona Mosque (1493- 1519) and Bara Sona Mosque (1526) at Gaur-Lakhnauti, Bagha (1522) and Kushumba Mosque (1558) in Rajshahi, and the recently excavated Jami's at Satghachhia and Monohar Dighi (late 15th / early 16th century) in Bara Bazar (Jessore). Mughal period In Bengal, the architecture under the Mughals was mostly the work of the subahdars under Shahjahan and Aurangzeb. During the rule of Shaista Khan, many monuments were built in the region, particularly around Dhaka. Monuments were built as small-scale imitations of the Mughal imperial monuments in northern India. The material used in the construction was plastered brick, and plaster panelling was used for ornamentation of the mosque. Hindus erected temples at the same time across the region. These also used plaster to cover the surface and incorporated the features of the earlier Sultanate style ' such as curvilinear forms of cornice, terracotta ornamentation and the do-chala and chau-chala features. Some of the famous mosques, tombs, temples and secular buildings built during the Mughal period are : Mosques Mosque of Shah Niamatullah Wali, Satmasjid, Dhanmondi Eidgah Tombs Dara Begum's tomb, Tomb of Haji Khwaja Shahbaz Temples Jor-Bangla Temple, Raja Ram Temple, Kantanagar Temple Secular buildings Lalbagh Fort, Pagla Bridge, Sonargaon Bridge, Sonakanda Fort, Zinjira Fort Colonial and post-colonial period Colonial architecture in India has been a combination of Indian and British elements. The British created the mixed style with the intention of satisfying the local people as well as upholding their own imperial style. Colonial architecture reflects majestic buildings built for residential and official purposes with lofty domes, classical pillars, semi-circular arches and pediments. The Indian elements used in such structures created a new look, easily distinguishable from the architecture of the past. The British colonial architecture in Bengal flaunts elegance and sophistication today, and buildings built during this period are still used as important government offices and university campuses, such as Ahsan Manzil, The High Court Building and Curzon Hall of Dhaka University. During the Pakistan period, there was initially no new, significant' architectural achievement, mainly due to the absence of experienced architects and engineers. However, in the 1960s, a number of buildings of architectural importance were created, such as Kamalapur Railway Station, the Baitul Mukarram Mosque and Shilpakala Academy, The independence of Bangladesh led to the creation of beautiful landmarks all over the country e.g. the Shahid Minar in Dhaka and the National Mausoleum in Savar, which are proof of the ingenuity and skill of Bangladeshi architects. With the spirit of nationalism and freedom after independence, the most attractive monuments of Bangladesh were built. Bangladeshi architecture utilises new techniques and modern designs according to time and space, and the major cities of the country are adorned with skyscrapers, steel-glass structures and various other ultra-modern institutions. Comprehension Questions 1. Why is our knowledge of ancient architecture in Bangladesh limited? 2. What can we learn about architecture in Bangladesh from Hiuen Tsang? 3. What characterised architecture during the Muslim period? 4. Name three famous architectural sites from the Mughal period. 5. Why was architectural development limited during the Pakistan period? Discussion/Reflection Question Sangsad Bhaban, the Bangladesh Parliament, is said to be a great architectural creation of modern Bangladesh. Do you agree? Explain your answer. Research Task Make a study trip to an architectural landmark in your city or region. Find out (i) what makes the architecture so special, and (ii) the history behind the landmark. The contribution of folk culture and other cultural practices in shaping the culture of Bangladesh Summary In the Bengali way of life folk arts, crafts and religious and cultural festivals are very important. Although some of these traditions are beginning to die out, it is through such skills as the making of 'Noshki Katha' that a record of the old practices can be kept. Folk culture Bengali folk arts, crafts, festivals and games are interrelated. Traditional art and craft, festivals and games seem now to be in the process of extinction. The most popularly practised festivals are the religious ones. Folk art and crafts include making of ornaments, clothes, toys, tapestry, utility items, etc. Each item that is produced is the outcome of the inner creativity of the artist and made from the gifts that nature offers in the day to day rustic life. Bengali art and craft has an extraordinary power of influencing onlookers, which include both adults and children. Every single piece of the famous 'Nokshi Katha', the hand embroidered tapestry, has a touch of the delicate fingers and workmanship of at least four female artists working at a time. The 'Nokshi Katha' depicts the Bengali rustic life through needlework, examples of which range from the 'Shapla' or the water lily (the national flower of Bangladesh) floating in the ponds, rustic boys flying kites, an adolescent shepherd playing his flute while the animals graze by or even a young girl taking food for her father or her husband who is busy harvesting the crops in the fields.' Every little aspect of village life is preserved among the threads of the tapestry. This is indeed a God- gifted quality acquired by these workers, as few of the artists have ever been to school or have had any vocational training. Hand made ornaments are designed and worked upon both by male and female craftsmen, who produce exotic and intricate designs and sell these at a very cheap price in spite of the tremendous effort put in. Other utilitarian products like hand fans, utensils, clothes, handicrafts, also display intricate workmanship and ornamental designs. Folk artists of Bangladesh use bamboo, cane, clay, shells, fabrics, fibre, grass, horns, leaf, leather, seeds, wood, etc. to make various traditional crafts. The fascinating items made from these raw materials have, for ages, been preserved in the various museums of the country which, at the same time, are being used by the different strata of people living in Bengal. Most essential domestic objects, such as pots and pans made of clay, are available in miniature sizes to be used as toys by the rustic children of Bengal. As the older artisans concentrate on making utensils and other products, their children imitate their parents and improve their own creativity. People of the influential class decorate their gardens and the interior of their houses with clay paraphernalia and terracotta. The people of Bangladesh have excelled in the production of pottery through a high degree of craftsmanship. The silt deposits carried by great rivers like the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna form clay, paving the way to the artistic production of clay objects. Hand made pottery is predominantly the art of rustic women. The Hindu community, comprising the Kumar and Patua castes, specialise in making a variety of dolls and toys. The big clay jars and vases are the creations of the Kumar and Patua menfolk. Religious and cultural festivals Bangladesh enjoys a variety of festivals. The Bengali word for festival is utsob, which means assembly of people and merry-making. Traditional folk festivals have variety, colour, fun and entertainment. Other than the religious ones, most festivals are seasonal and are secular in nature. The religious festivals are practised to attain divine blessings, some of which are parts of religious traditions. Devotional lyrics addressed to the beauty of nature and the philosophy related to it serve as an inspiration to life. Melas or festivals could also include an exhibition of handicrafts of the cottage industries, folk crafts and games played as competitions, carnivals, dances, musical performances, comic plays, jatra (open stage Bengali drama), circus, fireworks and gambling. Some of the religious festivals and fairs of the different religions are : Muharram (Islamic New Year), Eid-e-Miladunnabi (birth and death anniversary), Eid-ul-Azha , Muslim Eid-ul-Fitr Hindu Dhol Jatra, Durga Puja, Saraswati Puja, Laxmi Puja Buddhist Buddho Purnima, Maghi Purnima, Tithi Puja, Ashwri Purnima Christian Christmas, Easter Pahela Boishakhi (Bengali New Year), Bijoy Mela of 16 December (Victory celebration), Common Ekushey Boi Mela Ekushey February, Nabanna Utshob (festival to celebrate the harvesting), Chaittra Sankranti Tribal Noboborsho, Roth Tana Utshob Research Task and Discussion/Reflection Question 1. Ekushey February is remembered every year. What happened on 21 February in 1952? How do Bangladeshis observe Ekushey February every year? 2. International Mother Language Day was proclaimed by UNESCO in 1999 and is observed every year on 21 February by member states of the United Nations. Find out more about this day. Why do you think 21 February was chosen? Discussion/Reflection Question 'Folk culture and the celebration of religious festivals are a highly important part of Bengali life.' Discuss this statement. Choose at least five of the festivals mentioned above and write about, or discuss, their significance in the context of Bangladesh. The contribution of various cultural figures: some examples Summary We have already discussed the lives and works of some of the major cultural figures (Section A). However, there are many more important personalities who have contributed to the growth and development of the literature and culture of Bangladesh.' What follows are brief notes on some of the contributions. Farrukh Ahmed Farrukh Ahmed lived between 1920 and 1975. He was a modern poet and wrote on the theme of Islamic rejuvenation. He is widely known as the poet of the Islamic Renaissance in Bengal. Farrukh was a student of Philosophy at university, but he discontinued his studies due to his excessive love for poetry. Some of his popular writings include Hatem Taiee, Pakhir Basha, Rajrajra and Koran Monjusha. Abbasuddin Ahmed Abbasuddin Ahmed was born in a conservative Muslim family in 1901. From childhood, he was very religious and a firm lover of music. Abbasuddin never had any formal training in music. During Abbasuddin's time, music and its practice were rare in Muslim homes.' Music was considered more of a Hindu tradition in Bengali society, and as such, most singers during those times were Hindu and rarely Muslim. Yet, Abbasuddin persevered and the two songs of his first gramophone record, 'Kon birohir ayan jole badol jhare go' and 'Sharan parer ogo priyo', made him popular all over Bengal. Abbasuddin reached the climax of his career when Kazi Nazrul Islam wrote songs for him to sing. One such song was 'Snighdha Shyam Beni Barna', which is still one of the most popular songs of Bengal. It greatly disappointed Abbasuddin that although the Hindu community had many songs to celebrate their festivals, the Muslims had none. This led him to write the popular Eid song Romjaner Oi Rojar sheshey elo khushir Eid. During the British period, most political meetings used his popular songs. He took active part in the anti-colonial upheaval in the British India. Abbasuddin died in 1959, but the melodies of his songs have remained fresh.''' Munier Chowdhury Munier Chowdhury is one of the most famous playwrights of post-1947 period. He is also remembered for his role as a pioneer in the Language Movement. Even today, Munier's play Kabar (Grave) is one of the most popular and successful plays in the history of Bengali performing arts. Michael Madhusudan Dutt Michael Madhusudan Dutt was born in 1824 and is renowned for his work on classical and contemporary dramas. The dramas he wrote were influenced by Sanskrit, Greek and English plays. His first play, 'Sharmishtha', written in 1859 brought him under the limelight. In 1860, he wrote 'Padmavati', and then 'Krishnakumari' in 1861, the first historical play in Bangla where he followed the style of a Greek tragedy. Madhusudan was a brilliant man and it is said' that he would have several writers sitting around him, each responsible for a different piece of work, to whom he would dictate his creation, one after the other, during the same writing sessions. Jibananda Das Jibananda Das (1899-1954) was a contemporary of Kazi Nazrul Islam. He was a remarkable poet and was the one who influenced many poets of the 1960s and 1970s. Jharapalak, written in 1927, was his first book of poems. Banalata Sen written in 1942 is one of his most famous poems, so is Ruposhi Bangla, which was a posthumous publication in 1957. After Rabindrath and Nazrul, Jabananda Das' appears to be the most well-read poet of his generation. Ahsan Habib Ahsan Habib (1917-1985) was a poet and journalist. Ahsan Habib started writing while still a student. His first poem, Mayer Kabar Pade Kishor, was published in the school magazine in 1934 when he was student of Class X. His first collection of poems was Ratrishes (1947).' He wrote a number of children's books, among them Jyotsna Rater Galpa, Brsti Pade Tapur Tupur (1977) and Chhutir Din Dupure (1978). He received several awards for his literary achievements, among them the UNESCO Literary Prize (1960-61), the Bangla Academy Award (1961), Adamjee Literary Prize (1964), Ekushey Padak (1978) and Abul Mansur Ahmed Memorial Prize (1980). Begum Sufia Kamal Begum Sufia Kamal (1911-1981) is an important poet and social worker. Sufia's first poem, Basanti, was published in 1926.' Her first book of poems, Sanjher Maya, was published in 1938, which won her literary acclaim in Bengal. Kazi Nazrul Islam penned the foreword of her book, and commended Sufia as the 'new star in the horizon of Bengali poetry'. Even Tagore, in a letter to Sufia, wrote 'You have a high place in Bangla literature, as constant and fixed as the Pole Star. In 1948, Sufia became the first editor of the magazine 'Begum', one of the most widely acclaimed and oldest women's magazine in Bangla. Later, she went on to become the co-editor of another weekly magazine, Sultana. Apart from writing more than a dozen volumes of poetry, Sufia wrote short stories, travelogues and an autobiography called Ekale Amader Kal. Begum Kamal was also an active social worker. In 1929, she joined a Muslim women's association called the 'Anjuman-i-Khawatin-i-Islam' founded by Begum Rokeya. The association gave women a platform to discuss matters relating to them, to promote education and bring about social reform'' Begum Sufia Kamal actively took part in the Language Movement to protest against the suppression of Bengali culture and Bangla by the ill motivated Pakistani government. At the time of war, Sufia penned the incidents going round her in the war, her thoughts, feelings and emotions in two diaries, Ekattarer Diary (Diary of '71) and Mor Jaduder Smadhi Pare (Where My Darlings Lie Buried). The latter diary was a poetic one, recalling the barbarity of the Pakistani army and the burning desire of the freedom fighters of Bangladesh to liberate their country. Hasan Raja Hasan Raja (1854-1922) was a mystic poet and folk singer. Hasan Raja composed about a thousand mystic songs in regional dialects and simple but engaging tunes. Local bauls and fakirs performed his songs which made him nationally famous. Like the songs of Lalon Shah, Hasan Raja's songs rise above communalism and are true for both Hindus and Muslims. Zahir Raihan Zahir Raihan was the pioneering film-maker of Bangladesh and made films in Urdu and English as well in Bangla. The first film directed by him, Kakhono Asheni, was released in 1961 and was followed by at least seven more films in quick succession. But his untimely death after the birth of Bangladesh (in fact, he disappeared mysteriously) brought an end to a great career. Zahir Raihan's most famous film was Jiban Theke Neya, which depicted the autocratic rule of Pakistan and inspired people to rise up against the Pakistani rulers. Mohammed Shahidullah Mohammed Shahidullah made an important contribution to our understanding of the history of Bangla language and literature. Soon after the birth of Pakistan in 1947, the central government of Pakistan planned to impose Urdu as the state language of West Pakistan and East Pakistan, ignoring Bangla which was spoken by more than 98 per cent of the population. Dr Shahidullah said, 'It is a reality that we are Hindus and Muslims; but the greater reality is that we are all Bengalis. " S.M. Sultan Now it is your turn to find out about this important figure! Activity Make a chart and use the internet to make notes for each of the above cultural figures on the following areas of their life: when they were living  where they were born which aspect of culture they contributed to (e.g. art) what influenced/inspired them why they are important. Discussion/Reflection Question Who is your favourite Bengali writer/playwright/poet/artist and why? Explain your answer using examples of his/her work. Activity Make a poster on your favourite writer/playwright /poet/artist and hang it up on your classroom wall. Use pictures and colours to liven up your poster. Bangladesh Studies O Level (7094) Pilot Textbook Topic 2 (a) Ancient Bengal Purpose of this chapter This chapter covers Topic 2 of the five History & Culture Topics in the syllabus for the Cambridge GCE Ordinary Level Bangladesh Studies (syllabus 7094). It introduces candidates to the historical developments in Bengal before the Mughal Empire, from the fourth century BC until the 16th century AD: ancient Bengal (Topic 2a) early kingdoms in Bengal (Topic 2b) Muslim rule in Bengal (Topic 2c) rule of the independent Sultans (Topic 2d). Acknowledgment: Most of the information for this chapter has been derived and adapted from Banglapedia, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Topic 2a: Ancient Bengal Summary It Is difficult to find out about Ancient Bengal before the 4th century AD. What we do know is that it was divided into six areas called janapadas. For a while, Bengal was controlled by the Mauryas and later the Guptas. Introduction We know that the history of Bengal (by which we mean modern-day Bangladesh and West Bengal in India) can be traced back more than 2,500 years. However, we cannot be sure of much of its history until around the 4th century AD because there are so few historical sources that have survived. However, after the 4th century AD, when the Gupta Empire began to rule India, more reliable written records became available. For the period before the 4th century AD, historians have tried to get a sense of what happened from scanty references found mainly in various religious texts which were not usually intended to be accurate historical documents. In the earliest phase of its history, Bengal is thought to have been divided into six territorial units, each of them representing a janapada (human settlement). The janapadas were: Vanga: probably part of today's 24 Pargana Districts of India and the Khulna Division of Bangladesh. Pundra: situated in the district of Bogra and adjacent areas. From archaeological sources, it is known that the capital of Pundra, Pundranagara, was the earliest urban centre in Bangladesh. Radha: (also described as Rarha, Ladha) probably included a large part of the modern Indian state of West Bengal. This janapada had important centres of trade, commerce and administration in the ancient as well as medieval period. Gauda: lay to the north-west of Bhagirathi (Hughly) river and its core area was Murshidabad. Gauda was the capital city of many rulers of ancient and medieval Bengal. Samatata: in the Meghna river valley. It appears to have consisted of Comilla and Noakhali areas of Bangladesh and some areas of Tripura in India. Harikela: identified as Chittagong and its adjacent areas.  Figure 2.1 Ancient Bengal (source: Banglapedia, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh) Bengal during the Maurya Empire First Chandra Gupta Marya established The first great and well-organised empire of the Subcontinent was the Mauryan Mauryan Empire in Empire (c. 320--180 BC). Mauryan rule was established in Bengal by Emperor India and its came Asoka. During the time of the Mauryas, Bengal probably continued to be divided into north Bengal in the the different janapadas, and the janapada called Pundra formed part of the Empire's third century BC. eastern province. Mahasthangarh of Bogra was probably the provincial capital of the region. The western part of Bengal also achieved importance during the Mauryan period because vessels sailed from its ports to Sri Lanka and South-East Asia. Buddhism arrived in Bengal during the Mauryan era. From Bengal, Mahinda, the son of Asoka, one of the most famous Emperors of the ancient world, carried the message of Buddhism to Sri Lanka. Weaving We can learn from the Arthashastra of Kautilya (written in 3rd century BC) that the tradition of weaving fine cotton cloth in Bengal goes back at least as far as the Mauryan period. The Arthashastra includes references to the fine cotton fabric of Vanga (south-eastern Bengal) as an important item of trade throughout India. Greek and Latin writers of around the same period also mention it. Bengal under the Guptas The period between Mauryas and Guptas We know little about the history of Bengal from the fall of the Mauryas (2nd century BC) to the rise of the Guptas (4th century AD). In the first century AD, the Aryans came to Bengal looking to conquer new lands to win prosperous trade. There is some evidence that Bengal continued to flourish during this time. It is known from the accounts of Greek scholars, such as Ptolemy, that in the first two centuries AD there was a powerful Bengal kingdom with its capital at Gange, a great market town on the banks of the Ganges. We also have evidence of widespread trade between Bengal and China, as well as other countries during this time. Independent states come under Gupta rule It is likely that on the eve of Gupta expansion under Samudragupta, the greatest of the Guptas, (4th century AD) Bengal remained divided into independent states. However, by about the middle of the 4th century AD, most independent states came under Samudragupta's rule. Samatata remained outside his empire, but was reduced to the status of a tributary state. It is probable that the Gupta won control over Samatata eventually, as by the end of the 6th century AD this area appears to have been ruled by a king with his name ending with Gupta (Vainyagupta). Several copper- plates of 5th century Gupta emperors (Kumaragupta and Budhagupta) found in northern Bengal prove that Gupta rule was by then well established in that area. The golden age Under Gupta rule, Bengal was an important province. Bengal is believed to have come under Gupta rule in the 4th century AD. The period of the Guptas is generally considered to be the 'golden age' of Indian history. During this period, India was controlled by a strong central government, which brought peace and prosperity and political stability for a considerable time. This period is remarkable for its trade and commerce, in which Bengal participated fully. For example, Fa-hsien, a Chinese visitor at that time, stated that Tamralipti (located on the bank of the Ganges in West Bengal) was a great trading emporium. The discovery of a large number of Gupta coins and ornaments in Bengal prove the economic prosperity of the region under the Guptas. Figure 2.2 Gupta coin (source: Banglapedia, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh) The period is also remarkable for religious toleration. The Gupta monarchs embraced Brahmanism and styled themselves Paramabhagavatas or Paramadaivatas. But they also patronised Buddhism and Jainism. This indicates that there was religious toleration and coexistence of religious beliefs. The artistic excellence of the Gupta age is also well known and it influenced the artistic tradition of Bengal. The Gupta School inspired the Bengal style of sculptural art. Gupta rule in Bengal weakens Towards the end of the sixth century AD, the Gupta rule in Bengal weakened and around 600 AD, Shashanka, a minor military officer of the Guptas, became ruler of Bengal. Shashanka's rise marked a new era in the history of Bengal. Comprehension Questions 1. Why is it difficult to find out about Bengal before the 4th century AD? 2. What benefits did Mauryan rule bring to Bengal? 3. Is it true that we know nothing about Bengal between the Mauryas and the Guptas? Explain your answer. Discussion/Reflection Question What can you glean from the text about the religious background and outlook of the Mauryas and the Guptas? Building on your knowledge The Gupta period has been described as a 'golden age' for Bengal. Why is this? See if you can find additional material to support this view. Bangladesh Studies O Level (7094) Pilot Textbook Topic 2 (b) Early kingdoms in Bengal Purpose of this section This section covers the early kingdoms of Bengal. You will learn about: the empire of Sasanka the Pala dynasty the Sena dynasty the independent kingdoms of south-east Bengal. Summary Between the seventh and thirteenth centuries, Bengal saw a number of independent kings and also came under the control of powerful dynasties such as the Pala and Sena dynasties. In south-eastern Bengal, independent kingdoms such as those controlled by the Khadga, Deva, Harikela, Chandra and Varman rulers had great influence. At a glance: early kingdoms in Bengal Western and northern Bengal South-eastern Bengal Independent kingdoms of: Vanga: 6th century AD Khadga: 7th century AD Shashanka Empire: 600--625 AD Pala Dynasty: 756--1098 AD Deva Dynasty: 8th century AD Harikela: 9th centry AD  Chandras: 10th--11th century AD Varman: 11th century AD Sena Dynasty: 1098--1204 AD The Empire of Shashanka The first Bengal kingdom Shashanka (c. 600 AD-625 AD) was the first independent king of ancient Bengal. Until he came to power, Bengal was ruled by distant empires such as the Mauryas and Guptas. But Shashanka was a local ruler and he not only established the first Bengal kingdom, but also extended his political influence well beyond the boundaries of Bengal. Extending political influence Shashanka first established himself in Gauda, the north-western region of Bengal, and made Kornosubora in Murshidabad his capital. He gradually extended his authority in Orissa, parts of Central Provinces as well as in Bihar, though his attempts to establish his authority further north lasted for only a short period. However, the most important contribution of Shashanka in the history of Bengal was that he defended the independence of the Gauda empire against a very powerful northern Indian adversary, Harsavardhana. For a king of Bengal, it was a great show of strength to have ventured into northern Indian politics. So he can be seen as the first important king of Bengal, who for the first time brought her into competition with other states for control of northern India. In this sense, he was the forerunner of the aggressive northern Indian policy of the later Pala rulers such as Dharmapala and Devapala. Religious controversy Shashanka was probably a follower of Hinduism. His main political enemy, Harsavardhana, was Buddhist. Therefore some writers close to Harsavardhana have depicted Shashanka as a persecutor of Buddhists. For instance, Hiuen Tsang, a famous Chinese tourist of the time, remarked that Harsavardhana was born to punish Shashanka, a hater of Buddhist religion. But evidence suggests it is not true that Shashanka persecuted Buddhists. There was, for example, a flourishing Buddhist University at Nalanda where Hiuen Tsang himself studied for some time, as well as a number of Buddhist monasteries in Shashanka's kingdom, including the Raktamrttika-Mahavihara near Karnasuvarna, the capital city of Shashanka. The Pala Dynasty Condition of Bengal before the emergence of the Palas: disorder After the death of Shashanka, there was a period when no one strong leader dominated and there were few kings who were able to rule for more than a year. Bengal also came under attack from foreign invaders. This state of lawlessness and disorder caused by internal as well as external forces lasted for more than a hundred years until the Palas took control of Bengal. The period between the fall of Shashanka and the rise of the Palas has been described in some sources as matsyanyayam. This means complete lawlessness arising out of the absence of a strong ruling power capable of enforcing law and order. Gopala: bringing an end to disorder This period of disorder was finally brought to an end by Gopala (c.756-781 AD). He not only brought an end to a long spell of disunity and chaos in Bengal, but also established the Pala Dynasty, which successfully ruled Bengal for about four hundred years. Gopala is said to have been elected by local people who wanted him to bring an end to the disorder in Bengal. Gopala did not disappoint. During his rule of about 25 years (c.756 - 781), he not only ended the matsanyayam, but seems to have consolidated the rule of his dynasty