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02A Lesson Proper for Week 1 Completion requirement LESSON PROPER Civilization is defined as the level of development where people coexist peacefully in communities, with ancient civilization specifically referring to the first stable communities that laid the groundwork for future states, n...

02A Lesson Proper for Week 1 Completion requirement LESSON PROPER Civilization is defined as the level of development where people coexist peacefully in communities, with ancient civilization specifically referring to the first stable communities that laid the groundwork for future states, nations, and empires. The study of ancient civilization is a subset of ancient history, which spans from the invention of writing around 3100 BC for over 35 centuries. Although humanity existed prior to writing, the advent of written records enabled the preservation of historical information. The earliest ancient societies emerged in various regions, including Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus Valley, the Huang He Valley in China, Crete, and Central America. These civilizations shared common characteristics, such as urban development, the invention of writing, advancements in pottery and metallurgy, animal domestication, and the establishment of complex social hierarchies. Knowledge about these ancient peoples is primarily derived from written records and archaeological discoveries. Significant archaeological findings have occurred over the last two centuries, with notable discoveries including the Sumerian culture in Mesopotamia in the 1890s and important excavations in China after the late 1970s. 1. Sumerian Civilization (4500 B.C. to 1900 B.C.) The ruins of Eridu in Iraq (Peter Sobolev/Shutterstock) Ancient Sumer, located in Mesopotamia, is recognized as the birthplace of the first civilizations in human history. The region's "Fertile Crescent," around 10,000 B.C., enabled early populations to establish agricultural practices, leading to settled communities. By approximately 4500 B.C., these communities, known as the Sumerians, developed sufficient agricultural surplus to create the world's first cities. Prominent Sumerian cities, including Eridu, Uruk, and Ur, featured significant architectural structures such as temples and palaces. The Sumerians are also credited with the invention of writing, specifically cuneiform, which emerged around 5,000 years ago. This writing system facilitated the documentation of grain transactions, storytelling, and the dissemination of agricultural knowledge. These advancements have earned Mesopotamia the designation of the "Cradle of Civilization." Additionally, the Sumerians made significant contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and astrology, developed irrigation techniques, established the first educational institutions, codified legal systems, and created the modern concept of time by dividing the day into hours, minutes, and seconds. 2. Indus Valley Civilization (3300 B.C. to 1300 B.C.) Ruins of Dholavira, a Harappan metropolis, in Gujarat, India (Credit: Vihang Ghalsasi/Shuttterstock) The emergence of agricultural societies around 7000 B.C. marked the beginning of small village formations in the Indus River Valley, located in present-day India and Pakistan. By approximately 3300 B.C., these settlements experienced significant growth, particularly in the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, which accommodated populations of around 40,000 to 50,000 residents. The urban development in the Indus Valley is characterized by advanced architectural practices, including the use of baked-brick construction. The cities were equipped with sophisticated sewer and water supply systems, contributing to their cleanliness and public health. The layout of the streets followed a strict grid pattern, indicating a high level of urban planning and organization. The uniformity observed in the construction materials, such as bricks of standard dimensions, reflects the societal emphasis on consistency and order. Additionally, the Indus Valley civilization is noted for its innovations in weights and measures, which were crucial for trade and commerce. The presence of a unique yet undeciphered writing system and advancements in metallurgy further highlights the complexity and ingenuity of this ancient civilization. 3. Ancient Egypt (3100 B.C. to 30 B.C.) Valley of the Kings. The tombs of the Ancient Egyptian Pharaohs near the West Bank of the Nile River (Credit: Anton Belo/Shutterstock) By 6000 B.C., settlers established communities along the Nile, finding refuge from harsh desert conditions. These early settlements evolved into significant urban centers by 3100 B.C., governed by pharaohs who served as both political leaders and spiritual intermediaries, responsible for law-making, taxation, military endeavors, and maintaining order. The ancient Egyptians flourished for millennia, gaining recognition for their advancements in various fields, including arithmetic, astronomy, and anatomy. Their medical practices, particularly in surgery, were notable, with mummification techniques believed to have contributed to their understanding of human anatomy. Additionally, the Egyptians developed a sophisticated writing system known as hieroglyphics, comprising a vast array of characters used for inscribing on stone. They also created derivative scripts for writing on papyrus, a durable material derived from local plant life. The architectural achievements of ancient Egypt are particularly remarkable, with their temples and tombs regarded as some of the most impressive constructions in history. Iconic monuments such as the Great Sphinx and the Pyramids at Giza stand as enduring testaments to their engineering prowess and creativity. 4. Ancient and Early Imperial China (2070 B.C. to A.D. 220) Western Xia tombs at the foot of Helan Mountains, an ancient landmark in Ningxia province of China (Credit: Katoosha/Shutterstock) The Yellow River Valley in China is recognized as the cradle of one of the world's oldest civilizations, with the emergence of farming settlements around 5000 B.C. This agricultural foundation eventually led to the establishment of a centralized government, beginning with the Xia Dynasty from 2070 to 1600 B.C. The concept of the "Mandate of Heaven" emerged during this period, positing that rulers governed by divine right and were expected to act as caretakers of their subjects, with a strong warning against misconduct. This political philosophy played a significant role in shaping governance throughout Chinese history. Culturally, China experienced significant development during both peaceful and tumultuous periods. The Shang Dynasty, from 1600 to 1046 B.C., saw the creation of written characters that bear resemblance to modern Chinese script. By 400 B.C., the teachings of influential figures like Confucius began to take root, emphasizing values such as virtue and filial piety. In addition to philosophical advancements, Chinese artisans made groundbreaking contributions, including the invention of silk, paper, and the early processes of block printing. The development of the maritime compass, along with the enduring practices of acupuncture and herbal medicine, further exemplifies China's rich cultural heritage. Notably, the construction of the Great Wall commenced as early as the 7th century B.C., marking a significant architectural achievement in Chinese history. 5. Ancient Maya Civilization (1000 B.C. to A.D. 1520) Ruins of ancient Observatory El Caracol in Chichen Itza. Mexico (Credit: Iren Key/Shutterstock) Around 7000 B.C., Mesoamerican communities began the cultivation of maize and beans, establishing permanent settlements in regions that now encompass southeastern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, and parts of Honduras and El Salvador. By approximately 1000 B.C., these early villages evolved into the ancient cities of the Maya Civilization, characterized by grand administrative and ceremonial complexes. The Maya exhibited a profound interest in astronomy, constructing large observatories and meticulously documenting planetary movements. They developed a sophisticated writing system that combined pictorial and phonetic elements, enabling them to make accurate predictions about celestial bodies. Their advanced understanding of the movements of Venus, Mars, and the moon significantly influenced their renowned timekeeping system. This timekeeping system featured intricate interlocking calendars that aligned agricultural practices and religious ceremonies with specific astronomical events. The legacy of the Maya's calendar continues to resonate today, as it remains a point of reference for many of the approximately 6 million modern descendants of the Maya civilization. 6. Ancient Greece (1100 B.C. to A.D. 140) Parthenon temple on Athenian Acropolis, Athens, Greece (Credit: Lambros Kazan/Shutterstock) Ancient Greece, while not the first civilization in the Mediterranean, significantly influenced Western culture. Agricultural settlements emerged around 7000 B.C. in the Aegean Sea, leading to the development of societies such as the Minoans and Mycenaeans. The Mycenaeans notably contributed to the Greek language and mythology, introducing key figures like Achilles and Odysseus, and establishing a pantheon that included gods such as Zeus and Athena. The collapse of Minoan and Mycenaean cultures around 1100 B.C. gave rise to independent city-states, including Athens, Sparta, and Thebes, by the 8th century B.C. These city-states, despite their distinct identities, shared a common language and religious practices, fostering a spirit of innovation. Greek poets like Homer and Hesiod laid the groundwork for Western literature, while philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle advanced the fields of medicine, mathematics, and science. The political ideas developed during this period also established the foundations for modern democratic systems. Overall, the contributions of ancient Greece in various domains, including literature, philosophy, and governance, continue to resonate in contemporary society. 7. Ancient Rome (750 B.C. to A.D. 470) Ponte Rotto ancient destroyed bridge from the Tiber Island, Rome, Italy (Credit: marcovarro/Shutterstock) Rome originated as a small village along the Tiber River around 750 B.C. and evolved into one of the largest empires in history, encompassing vast territories across the Mediterranean and beyond. As the empire expanded, the Romans integrated various ideas and inventions from the cultures they encountered, demonstrating a capacity for cultural assimilation. The Romans enriched their religious practices by adopting deities and rituals from the Greeks, Egyptians, and other societies, thereby enhancing their own pantheon. They also played a significant role in the preservation and organization of knowledge, producing some of the earliest encyclopedias. Notably, Pliny the Elder's "Naturalis Historia" aimed to compile a comprehensive collection of facts from diverse cultures, covering extensive topics in natural history, art, and architecture. Roman ingenuity is particularly evident in their state-sponsored construction projects. While they did not invent key architectural elements such as roads, arches, or aqueducts, their adaptations were distinguished by exceptional durability and strength, with some structures still in use today. The legacy of Roman architecture is exemplified by enduring monuments like the Pantheon and the Colosseum, which showcase the advanced skills of ancient architects and the innovative use of concrete. These constructions serve as a testament to the impressive achievements rooted in ancient history. THE MEDIEVAL WORLD AND STS The Medieval Era, from 476 to 1600 AD, was a significant period in science and technology, influenced by political and religious circumstances. Despite its association with knights and the Bubonic Plague, advancements in health, agriculture, and economics significantly impacted society. These advancements positively impacted mankind. Technology and Church The Medieval period, often referred to as the "Dark Ages," was characterized by a lack of scientific advancement due to the Christian Church's control over religious, government, and scientific functions. The Church feared scientific reasoning would threaten its authority, but new technologies like the chimney were integrated into everyday life. The Church strictly controlled certain scientific practices. Christianity was legally recognized as a religion in 313, thanks to Constantine's efforts. The Church became a center of community life, allowing scientific learning and healing. However, rules and religious restrictions impeded scientific advancement. Public dissections were considered moral, limiting anatomy and medical science. This limited faith in the Church's abilities. The Medieval period saw technological advancements in agriculture, textiles, and building construction, which did not negatively impact the Christian Church or its authoritative image. The Church maintained control over scientific knowledge while embracing new technology. The Technology Used in Everyday Medieval Life The Medieval period saw significant technological advancements, including vertical windmills, spectacles, mechanical clocks, and improved water mills. Between 1000 and 1300 AD, medieval universities emerged, benefiting from translated texts and providing new infrastructure for scientific communities. By the 6th century, teaching and learning moved to monastic and cathedral schools, with the Bible as the center of education. In the 7th century, learning began in Ireland and the Celtic lands. A. Mechanical Artiller 1. Counterweight trebuchet (12th). By using counterweights to propel massive stones over great distances, these weapons, powered by gravity, revolutionized medieval siege tactics. The eastern Mediterranean region was its original usage. By the 1120s and 1130s in Byzantium, the Crusades, and the Latin West by the 1150s, trebuchets were in use. 2. Missile weapons, Longbow with massed, disciplined archery (13th). The longbow was a potent and precise weapon that ultimately led to the fall of the medieval knight class. During the Hundred Years' War, the English employed it against the French (1337-1453). 3. Steel crossbow (late 14th century). This European invention was the first hand-held mechanical crossbow and included a variety of cocking devices to increase draw power. Huge and start to emerge by the 14th century's end. B. Agriculture 1. Heavy plough (5th - 8th). The heavy wheeled plough originated in Slavic regions and then spread to Northern Italy, including the Po Valley. It was in use in the Rhineland by the eighth century. In order to cultivate the rich, heavy, and frequently rainy soils of Northern Europe, the Heavy Plough was essential. 2. Horse collar (6th–9th century). From the 6th to the 9th century, the horse collar underwent several evolutionary changes. More horse power could be used to draw big ploughs, for example  3. Horseshoes (9th). These enable horses to endure more difficult terrain, climb mountains, and pull bigger loads. As early as 50 BC, the Romans and Celts would have been aware of them. C. Architecture and Construction 1. Artesian well (1126). A small, hard iron cutting rod is inserted into a bore hole and pounded with a hammer several times. Without using a pump, the water is forced up the hole by subsurface water pressure. The first Artesian well was sunk in 1126 by Carthusian monks in Artois, France, hence the name of the wells. 2. Wheelbarrow. A tool for farming, mining, and construction (1170s). In North-western Europe, wheelbarrows first appeared in tales and illustrations between 1170 and 1250. earliest illustration of it from the thirteenth century. 3. Blast furnace (1150-1350) About 1150, cast iron is first recorded in Middle Europe. It was believed that the method was a unique European invention. D. Clocks 1. The hourglass (1338). Hourglass is a trustworthy, reasonably priced, and precise timepiece. Unlike other time measurement devices of the era, the equipment is not susceptible to freezing. A medieval invention, hourglasses were originally recorded in Siena, Italy. 2. Mechanical clocks (13th -14th). Weight-driven mechanical clocks, invented in Europe in the 13th and 14th centuries, were mostly utilized on clock towers.  3. Plate amour (14th, late). The best personal armor in terms of body protection and metalworking skills is plate amour (late 14th century). By the end of the fourteenth century, large, fully assembled plates of armor start to appear. E. Other Medieval Inventions 1. Vertical windmills (1180s). Originally developed in Europe as a pivoting post mill, these devices were effective in draining water and grinding grain. One was first mentioned in 1185, in Yorkshire, England. 2. Spectacles (1280s). Convex lenses were used in spectacles made in Florence, Italy, to aid the farsighted. Before the fifteenth century, concave lenses were not produced for nearsighted individuals. 3. Spinning wheel (13th). Brought to Europe probably from India. 4. Chess (1450). The game's ancestors first appeared in India in the sixth century AD, and they eventually made their way to Europe via Persia and the Muslim world. The game changed to become what it is now around the fifteenth century. 5. Mirrors (1180). In 1180, Alexander Neckham said, "Take away the lead which is behind the glass and there will be no image of the one looking in." This was the first recorded reference of a mirror. 6. Oil paint (c. 1410). Flemish painter Jan van Eyck created a stable oil mixture as early as the 13th century. Details were added to tempera paintings using oil. 7. Quarantine (1377). You. Quarantining started in Venice and quickly expanded throughout Europe. 02A Lesson Proper for Week 2 Completion requirements Societal Significance of Science Where technology has developed in close relationship to the convenience and prosperity of human life since before the advent of recorded history, science originated from natural philosophy and was supported by people’s intellectual curiosity. The main objective of science has been elucidation of how nature is put together and operates, and it has developed as a separate entity from technology. Of course, while technological progress was backed up by various scientific advances, this does not mean that scientific research was conducted for the purpose of developing new technologies, rather, scientific knowledge was utilized only because it was available. In fact, it was more common for new technologies to be developed in order to pursue scientific research. After the Industrial Revolution, the separate paths taken by science and technology began to move closer together. Significantly, the concept of linking scientific results to technology for utilization in society became prevalent after around 1850, which is when a chemical industry began to develop based on utilization of knowledge about chemistry, and electrical technologies arose based on knowledge about electromagnetism. Nevertheless, science has moved away from being the business of the intellectual world, with scientific results now pioneering the frontiers of human activities in terms of both space and time, and expanding the potential of human activities. Science also has become a major influence on people’s sense of values, changing the nature of society and becoming the engine driving society’s progress from the viewpoint of civilization. Scientific Progress Has Changed the Nature of Society, and Its Sense of Values While there are probably no end of examples of scientific progress having a major effect on people’s sense of values, and changing the nature of society itself, the following is an introduction to just a few of the more famous examples. The centennial anniversary to one of the most 1905) is fast approaching, when Albert Einstein, one of the premier scientists of the 20th century, issued in rapid succession a theory of the photon, a theory of Brownian motion, and the Special Theory of Relativity, all of which served to overthrow the then-prevailing views of physics. Einstein’s Theory of Relativity became the foundations for all later physics, contributing greatly to progress in various fields of science. At the same time, it altered people’s concepts of space and time, and had a huge effect on philosophy and thought. In the field of astronomy, Nicolaus Copernicus developed a theory, later bolstered and refined by Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei, that had a great effect on the development and reform of society, overthrowing Europe’s medieval sense of values and driving it into the modern age. In recent years, however, examples of such society-changing advances have become increasingly common. For example, Edwin Hubble’s discovery in 1929 that the universe was expanding led directly to the Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe (1946) by George Gamow and others. In 1965, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson detected cosmic background radiation pervading the universe, providing powerful evidence for the Big Bang theory. These discoveries gave people a new “sense of the universe.” Moreover, advances in space development have greatly expanded the space available for possible human activities, and opened up new frontiers for humanity where people can dream. At the same time, images of Earth taken from space have given people all over the world a new “view of the Earth,” vividly revealing its beauty and irreplaceability. Furthermore, the revelation in 1974 by Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina that chlorofluorocarbon gases were causing depletion of the ozone layer, followed in 1985 by the discovery of an ozone hole, had a huge effect on efforts to protect the global environment. Alfred Wegener’s theory of continental drift, announced in 1915, is widely accepted around the world today as the plate tectonics theory. At the time of its announcement, however, the mechanism for continental drift was unknown, and the theory attracted few supporters. In the 1950s and later, however, advances in sea floor monitoring advanced the field of geophysics, and in the 1960s Frederick Vine and Drummond Mathews found quantitative evidence of continental drift due to a spreading sea floor. This discovery completely altered people’s “sense of the Earth.” In the life sciences, meanwhile, as seen by such advances as the Theory of Evolution proposed by Charles Robert Darwin in the 19th century, which greatly changed people’s “sense of nature,” “sense of humanity,” and “sense of society,” there are many examples of discoveries going far beyond the world of science to affect the way people think in many sectors of society. The discovery in 1953 of the double helix structure of the DNA molecule by James Watson and Francis Crick gave birth to an entirely new field of molecular biology. The result has been progressive elucidation of the structure of living things at the molecular level and rapid advances in the life sciences, including the establishment of gene recombinant technology by Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer in 1973, the birth of a cloned sheep, Dolly, in 1996, and completion in 2003 of the project to sequence the entire human genome, conducted by the International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium, a collaboration of six countries including Japan, and five other North American and European countries. These recent advances in the life sciences have greatly increased understanding of humans and other living things, extending the frontiers of human activity, particularly in the medical field, and greatly affecting people’s “sense of life” and “sense of ethics.” Furthermore, advances in brain research hint at the possibility of closing in on the human soul, and progress in that area will surely have a large effect on people’s sense of values. The IT revolution of recent years is the culmination of many developments in computer technology, including the concept of the computing machine proposed by Alan Turing, and the invention of the transistor by William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain, as well as the advent of the Internet and other advances in information and communications technology. The IT revolution, however, does not consist merely of the development of new products or improvement of people’s convenience, but is also greatly changing people’s modes of behavior and lifestyles, through the possibilities it has opened up for the people of the world to use cyberspace for instantaneous exchange of information and opinions. The effects of the IT revolution have changed the nature of society in many dimensions, from the education, medical and welfare, transport, finance, and manufacturing sectors to modes of work and play. Furthermore, advances in nanotechnology have made possible the elucidation and manipulation of phenomena at the atomic or molecular level, feats that were previously considered impossible, and are now expanding the range of possible human activities. Nanotechnology was launched by a lecture given in 1959 by Richard Feynman, titled “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom,” and its progress has been marked by advances in measurement technology, and supported by such scientific discoveries as the discovery of fullerenes in 1984 by Harold Kroto and others. Elsewhere, the television has become a major factor shaping our modern society, as the communications medium with the greatest influence. This device, as well, is the culmination of various scientific results over the years, beginning with the invention of wireless communication by Guglielmo Marconi in 1895, the invention of the Braun tube in 1897, the invention of the Yagi-Uda antenna in 1925, and Kenjiro Takayanagi’s successful transmission of an electronic image using a Braun tube in 1926. History of Science and Technology in the Philippines The need to develop a country's science and technology has generally been recognized as one of the imperatives of socioeconomic progress in the contemporary world. This has become a widespread concern of governments especially since the post-World War II years. Among Third World countries, an important dimension of this concern was the problem of dependence on science and technology as this is closely tied up with the integrity of their political sovereignty and economic self-reliance. There exists a continuing imbalance between scientific and technological development among contemporary states with 98 per cent of all research and development facilities located in developed countries and almost wholly concerned with the latter's problems. Dependence or autonomy in science and technology has been a salient issue in conferences sponsored by the United Nations (Caoili, 2017).  There is a very little reliable written information about Philippine society, culture and technology before the arrival of the Spaniards in 1521. According to sources, there were numerous, scattered, thriving, relatively self-sufficient and autonomous communities long before the Spaniards arrived. The early Filipinos had attained a generally simple level of technological development, compared with those of the Chinese and Japanese, but this was sufficient for their needs at that period of time. Gradually, the early Filipinos learned to make metal tools and implements of copper, gold, bronze and, later, iron. These were practically the same commodities of trade between the islands and China, which the first Spanish colonial officials recorded when they came to the Philippines more than two centuries later. The pre-colonial Filipinos were still highly superstitious. The Spaniards found no temples or places of worship. Although the Filipinos knew how to read and write in their own system, this was mainly used for messages and letters. They seem not to have developed a written literary tradition at that time. This would have led to a more systematic accumulation and dissemination of knowledge, a condition that is necessary for the development of science and technology. Throughout the Spanish regime, University of Santo Tomas remained as the highest institution of learning. It initially granted degrees in theology, philosophy and humanities. During the eighteenth century, the faculty of jurisprudence and canonical law was established. In 1871, the schools of medicine and pharmacy were opened. The study of pharmacy consisted of a preparatory course with subjects in natural history and general chemistry and five years of studies in subjects such as pharmaceutical operations at the school of pharmacy. At the start of the American regime, a German physician of Manila submitted a report to the authorities on the conditions at UST's medical college. The report mentions, among others, its lack of library facilities, the use of outdated equipment. With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the consequent ease in travel and communications that it brought about, the liberal ideas and scientific knowledge of the West also reached the Philippines. The prosperity that resulted from increased commerce between the Philippines and the rest of the world enabled Filipino students to go to Europe for professional advanced studies. Towards the end of the sixteenth century, the religious orders had established several charity hospitals in the archipelago and in fact provided the bulk of this public service. There was very little development in Philippine agriculture and industry during the first two centuries of Spanish rule. This was largely due to the dependence of the Spanish colonizers on the profits from the Galleon or Manila-Acapulco trade. Meteorological studies were promoted by Jesuits who founded the Manila Observatory in1865. In 1901, the Observatory was made a central station of the Philippine Weather Bureau which was set up by the American colonial authorities. It remained under the Jesuit scientists and provided not only meteorological but also seismological and astronomical studies. There was very little development in science and technology during the short-lived Philippine Republic (1898-1900). The government took steps to establish a secular educational system by a decree of 19 October 1898, it created the Universidad Liter aria de Filipinas as a secular, state-supported institution of higher learning. Science and technology in the Philippines advanced rapidly during the American regime. This was made possible by the simultaneous government encouragement and support for an extensive public education system; the granting of scholarships for higher education in science and engineering; the organization of science research agencies and establishment of science-based public services. The establishment of the University of the Philippines satisfied the short-run needs for professionally trained Filipinos in the colonial government's organization and programs. The University of the Philippines remained the only publicly supported institution for higher education, and, since it could not meet the increasing social demand for universities, was left to the initiative of enterprising Filipinos. For many Filipinos, private education became the alternative for professional education. Staff members of the Bureau of Government Laboratories held concurrent appointments as faculty members of the College of Medicine of the University of the Philippines and other units of the University, as well as appointments at the Philippine General Hospital. Officers of the Bureau of Health were likewise appointed to the faculty of the College of Medicine. All of these scientists conducted their research work at the Bureau of Science. In 1935, the Philippine Commonwealth was inaugurated which was by this time completely under Filipino management, continued to expand its public school system to accommodate the increasing number of schoolchildren. There was a significant increase in trained scientists and engineers in the Philippines before the Second World War. In 1982, NSDB was further reorganized into a National Science and Technology Authority (NSTA) composed of four research and Development Councils; Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and Development; Philippine Council for Industry and Energy Research Development; Philippine Council for Health Research and Development and the NRCP. The expanding number of science agencies gave rise to a demand for high caliber scientists and engineers to undertake research and staff universities and colleges. Hence, measures were taken towards the improvement of the country’s science and manpower. In 1935, the Philippine Commonwealth was inaugurated and ushered in a period of transition to political independence. The Constitution acknowledged the importance of promoting scientific development for the economic development which was by this time completely under Filipino management. On the whole, higher education was provided mainly by the private sector. This led to the combined significant increase in trained scientists and engineers in the Philippines before the Second World War. The continuing dependence of the Philippine economy on the United States even after independence in 1946, as a result of the free trade relations and the virtual imposition of the "parity" amendment to the Philippine Constitution by the US Congress has perpetuated the predominantly agricultural and rural character of Philippine economy and society. This dependent development of Philippine society and economy has had serious repercussions for the advancement of Philippine science and technology. Increasing social demand for higher education has led to the growth of highly trained professional manpower, particularly scientists, engineers and physicians. However, because of the underdeveloped state of the economy, many of these science-based professionals have been unemployed or underemployed. Consequently, many of them have been forced to migrate to developed countries, thus creating a "brain drain" or loss of valuable human resources for the Philippines. There is thus a need for the government to critically re-examine the interrelations between past and present education and science policies with those of its economic development policies in order to be able to redirect these towards the goal of attaining a strong, self-reliant economy and society. A well-developed national science and technology is a critical factor in the achievement of this goal (Caoili, 2017). 02A Lesson Proper for Week 3 Completion requirements SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION The scientific revolution was the emergence of modern science during the early modern period, when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology (including human anatomy), and chemistry transformed societal views about nature. The scientific revolution began in Europe toward the end of the Renaissance period, and continued through the late 18th century, influencing the intellectual social movement known as the Enlightenment. While its dates are disputed, the publication in 1543 of Nicolaus Copernicus’s De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) is often cited as marking the beginning of the scientific revolution. The scientific revolution was built upon the foundation of ancient Greek learning and science in the Middle Ages, as it had been elaborated and further developed by Roman/Byzantine science and medieval Islamic science. The Aristotelian tradition was still an important intellectual framework in the 17th century, although by that time natural philosophers had moved away from much of it. Key scientific ideas dating back to classical antiquity had changed drastically over the years, and in many cases had been discredited. The ideas that remained were transformed fundamentally during the scientific revolution.  The change to the medieval idea of science occurred for four reasons: 1. Seventeenth century scientists and philosophers were able to collaborate with members of the mathematical and astronomical communities to effect advances in all fields. 2. Scientists realized the inadequacy of medieval experimental methods for their work and so felt the need to devise new methods (some of which we use today). 3. Academics had access to a legacy of European, Greek, and Middle Eastern scientific philosophy that they could use as a starting point (either by disproving or building on the theorems). 4. institutions (for example, the British Royal Society) helped validate science as a field by providing an outlet for the publication of scientists’ work. New Methods Under the scientific method that was defined and applied in the 17th century, natural and artificial circumstances were abandoned, and a research tradition of systematic experimentation was slowly accepted throughout the scientific community. The philosophy of using an inductive approach to nature (to abandon assumption and to attempt to simply observe with an open mind) was in strict contrast with the earlier, Aristotelian approach of deduction, by which analysis of known facts produced further understanding. In practice, many scientists and philosophers believed that a healthy mix of both was needed—the willingness to both question assumptions, and to interpret observations assumed to have some degree of validity. During the scientific revolution, changing perceptions about the role of the scientist in respect to nature, the value of evidence, experimental or observed, led towards a scientific methodology in which empiricism played a large, but not absolute, role. The term British empiricism came into use to describe philosophical differences perceived between two of its founders—Francis Bacon, described as empiricist, and René Descartes, who was described as a rationalist. Bacon’s works established and popularized inductive methodologies for scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian method, or sometimes simply the scientific method. His demand for a planned procedure of investigating all things natural marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, much of which still surrounds conceptions of proper methodology today. Correspondingly, Descartes distinguished between the knowledge that could be attained by reason alone (rationalist approach), as, for example, in mathematics, and the knowledge that required experience of the world, as in physics. Thomas Hobbes, George Berkeley, and David Hume were the primary exponents of empiricism, and developed a sophisticated empirical tradition as the basis of human knowledge. The recognized founder of the approach was John Locke, who proposed in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689) that the only true knowledge that could be accessible to the human mind was that which was based on experience. New Ideas Many new ideas contributed to what is called the scientific revolution. Some of them were revolutions in their own fields. These include: The heliocentric model that involved the radical displacement of the earth to an orbit around the sun (as opposed to being seen as the center of the universe). Copernicus’ 1543 work on the heliocentric model of the solar system tried to demonstrate that the sun was the center of the universe. The discoveries of Johannes Kepler and Galileo gave the theory credibility and the work culminated in Isaac Newton’s Principia, which formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation that dominated scientists’ view of the physical universe for the next three centuries.  Studying human anatomy based upon the dissection of human corpses, rather than the animal dissections, as practiced for centuries. Discovering and studying magnetism and electricity, and thus, electric properties of various materials. Modernization of disciplines (making them more as what they are today), including dentistry, physiology, chemistry, or optics. Invention of tools that deepened the understating of sciences, including mechanical calculator, steam digester (the forerunner of the steam engine), refracting and reflecting telescopes, vacuum pump, or mercury barometer. The Thinker: Nicolaus Copernicus As mentioned earlier, the man who arguably began this revolution was the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus. Born in Thorn in 1473, Copernicus studied in Krakow, Bologna, Padua and Rome before returning to Warmia, Poland to teach and study for the remainder of his life. Copernicus worked on a heliocentric model - where the sun, and not the Earth, was the center of the solar system - for nearly his entire life. Unlike previous astronomers and mathematicians who had used heliocentric models simply to make their mathematical calculations of the planet's orbits more accurate, Copernicus firmly believed the sun to be at the center of the solar system. Likely due to fears of potential backlash from church authorities, Copernicus waited to publish his theories and calculations until shortly before his death. Regardless of errors and discrepancies in his final theory, Copernicus' greatest achievement was the removal of the Earth from the center of the universe and solar system. Charles Darwin and his Theory of Evolution Charles Robert Darwin (February 12, 1809 – April 19, 1882) is one of the most celebrated and eminent scientists of the past few centuries, with his broadest and most notable influence arising from his theory of evolution by means of natural selection. Darwin’s remarkable investigations and insights obtained during his voyage on the HMS Beagle (1831–1836) led him to theorize about concepts of evolutionary biology and to develop revolutionary ideas related to adaptation and speciation. Although previous scientific thinkers had laid down some of the foundations for Darwin’s work, and others later expanded upon and more fully developed the scientific bases for his conclusions, Darwin set forth and formulated the controversial but coherent ideas about organic evolution that have impacted the world at large. His groundbreaking “On the Origin of Species” was originally published in 1859. Later, in 1871, Darwin argued in “The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex” that humans had evolved just as other organisms had, creating a storm of controversy that continues today. Darwin’s core insights regarding natural selection have proven inspirational and profound. In the process of natural selection, organisms often tend to produce more progeny than the environment will allow to subsist. In the struggle for existence that ensues, progeny with favorable variations in their traits will survive and leave more offspring than others do; the favorable variations accumulate through subsequent generations, and descendants with a set of adaptations to their environment eventually diverge from their less adapted ancestors. Working from this basic foundation of evolution through natural selection, modern scientists and investigators have been able to formulate more specific principles and ideas relating to many topics.  CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE Mesoamerica The founding culture of Mesoamerica appeared along the southwestern curve of the Gulf of Mexico, near the present city of Veracruz. The Olmecs (the “rubber people”) culture lasted from about 1400 BCE to 100 BCE. It produced nearly imperishable art, notably large carved heads of volcanic rock, the largest weighing some 20 tons and standing about 10 feet tall. Monumental sculptures or tombs are typically indicative of a civilization with powerful leaders. The Maya organized themselves into small city-states instead of one big empire. They developed the most elaborate and sophisticated writing system of the several different ones used in Mesoamerica. Mayan writing included both pictographs and symbols for syllables. Maya shaman/priests worked out remarkable systems of cosmology and mathematics. They devised three kinds of calendars. A calendar of the solar year of 365 days governed the agricultural cycle and a calendar of the ritual year of 260 days dictated daily affairs; these two calendars coincided every 52 years. A third calendar, called the Long Count calendar, extended back to the date August 13, 3114 BCE (on the Gregorian calendar), to record the large-scale passage of time. The Maya calculated a solar year as 365.242 days, about 17 seconds shorter than the figures of modern astronomers. They also introduced the concept of zero; the first evidence of zero as a number dates from 357 BCE, but it may go back further, to Olmec times. In Afro-Eurasia, Hindu scholars first represented zero in the 800s CE. Asia Early evidence for Chinese millet agriculture is dated to around 7000 BCE, with the earliest evidence of cultivated rice found at Chengtoushan near the Yangtze River, dated to 6500 BCE. Chengtoushan may also be the site of the first walled city in China. This Neolithic Revolution gave rise to the Jiahu culture (7000 to 5800 BCE). Some scholars have suggested that the Jiahu symbols (6600 BCE) are the earliest form of proto-writing in China. Chinese civilization begins during the second phase of the Erlitou period (1900 to 1500 BCE), with Erlitou considered the first state level society of East Asia. Erlitou saw an increase in bronze metallurgy and urbanization and was a rapidly growing regional center with palatial complexes that provide evidence for social stratification. The earliest traditional Chinese dynasty for which there is both archeological and written evidence is the Shang dynasty (1600 to 1046 BCE). Shang sites have yielded the earliest known body of Chinese writing, the oracle bone script, mostly divinations inscribed on bones. These inscriptions provide critical insight into many topics from the politics, economy, and religious practices to the art and medicine of this early stage of Chinese civilization. The Sanxingdui culture is another Chinese Bronze Age society, contemporaneous to the Shang dynasty, however they developed a different method of bronze-making from the Shang. Middle East The capital of this empire, Baghdad, was established on the Tigris River. Its location made it a natural crossroads, the place where East and West could meet. Baghdad quickly became a major cultural centre. Important Greek and Indian mathematical books were translated and studied, leading to a new era of scientific creativity that was to last until the 14th century. One of the earliest and most distinguished of the Arabic mathematicians was the 9th century scholar Abu Ja'far Mohammed ibn Musa Al-Khwarizmi, an astronomer to the caliph at Baghdad. His full name can be translated as "Father of Ja'far, Mohammed, son of Moses, native of the town of Al-Khwarizmi". Al-Khwarizmi wrote several enormously influential books. One, in particular, describes how to write numbers and compute with them using the place-value decimal system we use today, which had been developed in India some time before 600 AD. This book would, when translated into Latin 300 years later, prove a major source for Europeans who wanted to learn the new system. Today, we know it as the Hindu-Arabic system. It is taught to schoolchildren worldwide. Africa The Lebombo Bone discovered between South Africa and Swaziland is dated back to about 37,000 years before the present era. According to scientists, it could be a lunar calendar, specifying the number of days in a lunar month, similar in principle to the notches calendar used today by the San people in Namibia. This is the first visible sign of the emergence of mathematical calculations in the history of humanity, as reflected by the Anglo-Saxon researcher Richard Mankiewicz in his book L’histoire des mathématiques – Paris, Seuil, 2001. The first certain trace of the existence and the mastery of agriculture comes from Nubia (Sudan). The work of Professor Fred Wendorf admitted today that at least 14,000 years ago, the African man was the first to master agriculture and techniques.. 02A Lesson Proper for Week 4 Completion requirements Indigenous Science and Technology in the Philippines When Spain had already colonized most lowland communities in the Philippines in the 1700s, the indigenous peoples in the Philippines continued to live in their isolated and self-sufficient communities. They were able to preserve the culture and traditions of their "ethnos" or "tribe" as reflected in their communal views on land, their cooperative work exchanges, their communal rituals, their songs, dances, and folklore. The knowledge of the indigenous people of native science and the environment has been instrumental in our modern scientific advancements. Their knowledge has evolved from prolonged interactions with nature and has provided valuable resources for appropriate technology development and discoveries. People who practiced indigenous science used science process skills guided by community culture and values composed of traditional knowledge. Their scientific advancements have helped people in understanding the natural environment and in coping with everyday life. This Indigenous Knowledge System is defined by the cultural traditions of local communities, which are orally passed in stories, poems, and songs. Examples of Indigenous knowledge that are taught and practiced by indigenous Filipinos are: 1. Prediction of weather. The unusual behavior of insects, such as ants, earthworms, and dragonflies, has become a basis for predicting an upcoming rain, typhoon, or bad weather.  2. Using herbal medicine. Tamarind leaves, for example, are used as a cure for cough and cold by boiling young leaves for 30 minutes to drink. 3. Preserving foods. Salting, as also practices until today, is one of the indigenous practices in preserving food with dry edible salt. Thus method is done so that food will not be easily spoiled 4. Classifying plants and animals into families. Philippine languages have specific names for specific organisms. 5. Selecting good seeds for planting. Indigenous Filipinos learned to choose good seeds from the bad ones to maximize plant yield. 6. Using indigenous technology (pottery, weaving, and fine metalcraft). Examples of traditional outputs from weaving include placemats, bags, wallets, and mats. Indigenous Filipino metalsmiths can make intricate gold and bronze jewelry. 7. Building local irrigation. Indigenous practice includes pulling up water from a well or other such source to irrigate the land to keep plants healthy even if there's a dry spell. 8. Classifying different types of soil for planting. 9. Producing wines from tropical fruits. The Kalinga Women produced fruit wines from Guyabano and bignay. 10. Keeping the custom of growing plants and vegetables. Indigenous people pass on their traditional ecological knowledge, also referred to as indigenous knowledge, from generation to generation. In addition to many other topics, it aids in our understanding of behavioral ecology, ecological linkages, sustainable harvesting methods, animal population monitoring, and environmental change. Science and technology in the Philippines at Presen The Department of Science and Technology (DOST) in the Philippines, with its mandate from Executive Order No. 128, is a government agency tasked with overseeing and managing national technology development and acquisition, undertaking technological and scientific research, and promoting public consciousness of science and technology. The country's performance in achieving the desired outcomes for the science, technology, and innovation (STI) sector has been moderate. The latest available data indicate that four out of nine targets with available data have been exceeded. Over the decade, the Philippines have reported breakthroughs in scientific discoveries and inventions, including The discovery of the ancient human species called Homo Luzonensis in Callao Cave; The launch of the Philippines first microsatellite Diwata-1; The invention of environment-friendly lamps that run on saltwater, such as the SALt lamp and the Liter of Light Project, has helped light poor communities with no access to electricity. In June 2020, the DOST reported that there is an ongoing Filipino study about the possible benefits of herbal plants, particularly the tawa-tawa and lagundi, to reduce a person's vulnerability from the novel coronavirus disease (Covid-19). This development can be called folk medicine. In a separate study, Filipino researchers found that Virgin Coconut Oil (VCO), a resource abundant in the Philippines and has been in use for centuries, can help improve the health condition of the individuals that may be infected with Covid-19. (Food and Nutrition Research Institute, Department of Science and Technology (2021). Science and Technology in the Philippines The Department of Science and Technology (DST) in the Philippines is a government agency tasked with overseeing and managing national technology development and acquisition, undertaking technological and scientific research and promoting public consciousness of science and technology. DST is responsible for formulating and adopting a comprehensive National Science and Technology Plan for the Philippines, and to subsequently monitor and coordinate its funding and implementation. The DST undertakes policy research, technology assessment, feasibility and technical studies and maintains a national information system and databank on science and technology. Scientist as Advocates Scientists and technologists are essential in a developing world. They are one of the key players in a country's quest for industrialization. They are the lifeblood of research, innovation and have important roles in the industry and the manufacturing sector. Together with their roles in nation-building, scientists, too, have a responsibility to advocate for the betterment of S&T in their countries. PHILIPPINE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY AGENDA Innovation Culture What recent success we have with the saltwater lamp, the salamander tricycle and the Diwata 1 microsatellite is a good start but only indicates that we have a long way to go before we create an innovation culture. Innovation can only happen with enough scientists and technologists to develop an “innovation ecosystem.” ASEAN Integration requires competitive Technology Science and technology help us understand nature and the world and enables us to lead full lives through new and innovative means. It therefore requires that we as Filipinos, expand our science and technology base to enable us to compete in an integrated ASEAN. Two Major Approaches 1. Stronger Research and Development in the regions, not just Manila Expand research and development initiatives by providing more grant support for R and D through the DOSTs sectoral planning councils such as PCIERD, PCAARD and ASTI in cooperation with universities in the regions. The science initiative must be distributed to the regions especially those where food production needs to be improved, industry needs to grow and where innovation needs to be developed. This is critical considering climate change and expensive electricity and the need to disperse industry and economic activities. 2. Strategic projects in five areas: a. Renewable energy- we need new technologies to enable high electricity yields in limited space with less dependence on natural resources to enable us to meet our COP 21 commitments, while lowering the price of electricity. b. S and T for industry development- we need stronger participation of our scientists and engineers if we want to revitalize our basic industries such as the steel industry. c. Faster and cheaper internet – we have Asias slowest internet, yet our archipelago needs it bridge gaps and build networks. d. Increased food production- given limited lands, technology is needed to expand yields while increasing quality of output and being less dependent on foreign inputs like fertilizers. e. Climate change adaptation- We need cutting edge technology to enable our farmers to adapt to changing climates and the need to do away with technologies that destroy the capacity for good healthful yields. f. Enabling mechanisms and specifics More Research grants through the DOST and its sectoral planning councils and institutes Strengthen the Balik Scientist Program and retention program for current young scientists- our young scientists must be engaged through actual research projects. Many of our scientists and engineers are OFWs who support our candidacy. We need their help to uplift our countrys technology and we hope they come back. S and T cooperation within ASEAN- especially on the space program and climate change adaptation. Cooperation between industry and the science community by involving them in the sectoral planning councils. DOSTs programs for SMEs (Such as SET-UP) needs to be replicated further. Filipino Scientists Who Made a Remarkable Contribution to the Field of Science Philippines has provided significant contributions to both local and global areas. The discovery of several remarkable innovations and inventions was due to the brilliant scientists behind them all. Moreover, they can conduct more studies and research to develop solutions and exciting discoveries. DOST presents some of the known Filipino scientists and their remarkable scientific contributions so you can get familiar with them. Here are the ten Filipino scientists who have significantly contributed to the science field. 1. Alfredo Lagmay Alfredo Mahar Francisco Lagmay was a National Research Council member. He specialized in experimental psychology and was notable for introducing behavioral studies and hypnosis techniques for relaxation. And among his many contributions, the most significant one was his research on how specific changes happen in human behavior and how that particular behavior could treat mental illnesses in the long run. With this, he helped many people establish behavior therapy as another effective treatment option for specific conditions. 2. Angel Alcala Angel Alcala invented the artificial coral reefs used for fisheries in Southeast Asia. With his notable contribution to biological sciences, his research on the Philippine amphibians and reptiles was honored, making his name appear in the Asian Scientists 100 by The Asian Scientist Magazine (ASM). Also, his fieldwork in building sanctuaries and promoting biodiversity in the Philippines' aquatic system has made him one of the outstanding National Scientists in the Philippines. 3. Edgardo Gomez Marine biology was the field of specialization of Edgardo Gomez. He led the first-ever national-scale assessment of damage to coral reefs worldwide, placing him in 9th place for the Asian Scientists 100 magazine. With this excellent initiative in protecting and replanting the corals in the sea, he was awarded the National Scientist in 2014 and received a fantastic package, like a lifetime pension. 4. Fe del Mundo Regarding the child healthcare system, Fe del Mundo was a notable Pediatrics pioneer. She founded the first pediatric Philippine hospital and focused on addressing what the country lacked regarding medical equipment in specific communities like rural areas. And among her remarkable contributions to the Filipino people, an incubator made out of bamboo is her most famous invention. She has specifically designed the equipment so people who live in places without electrical power can regulate the temperature of their infants well. 5. Gavino Trono Just like Gomez, Gavino also specializes in Marine Biology. He was even known as the "Father of Seaweed Diversity" or the "Father of Kappaphycus Farming." So it is because he made a significant contribution to tropical marine psychology through his thorough research of seaweed biodiversity. Through his research, we can increase our knowledge of the diversity of seaweed plants all over Asia and their role in the marine ecosystem. 6. Geminiano de Ocampo Geminiano de Ocampo is the only National Scientist in the Philippines specializing in ophthalmology. With his knowledge of eye care, he was the first person to diagnose and treat specific eye problems in the country. He was the one who established the very first Philippine eye hospital to help Filipinos get quality eye care. His corneal dissector is one of the essential innovations, revolutionizing corneal transplant surgery. 7. Gregorio Velasquez When we talk about phycology in the country, one name is linked to it, and it is Gregorio Velasquez. He is one of the many Filipinos who received the title of National Scientist due to his remarkable contributions to the field of Science. Regarding his research, Velasquez extensively focuses on marine algae, where he has devised a way to tell which is which through their unique characteristics. 8. Gregorio Zara Engineering and inventions that is what Gregorio Zara is known for. He was a scientist and engineer in the country, passionate about Science and technology. His most significant invention was the videophone, which he patented together with 30 other devices for better and more convenient communication among people. 9. Julian Banzon As a pioneer in renewable energy, Julian Banzon uses his skill in producing alternative fuels through his research methods. As he specialized in chemistry, it was easy for him to do this incredible innovation, and he was even known for extracting resident coconut oil from the fruit. With his outstanding research, he was able to help people not solely to rely on fossil fuels. 10. Ramon Barba Horticulture is what Ramon Barba is best recognized for. He even led the Filipino scientists as he ranked third on the Asian Scientists 100 list. Barba developed technology for inducing mangoes to flower out of season and all year round. Aside from mangoes, Barba does other research on fruits and vegetables such as sugarcane, bananas, calamansi, and others. 02A Lesson Proper for Week 5 Completion requirements Human Flourishing in Terms of Science, Technology and Society Human flourishing refers to a state in which individuals and communities experience a high level of well-being, fulfillment, and happiness. It involves not just the absence of suffering or illness, but the presence of positive conditions that allow people to live their best lives. This includes physical, emotional, intellectual, social, and spiritual well-being. Human flourishing encompasses several key aspects: 1. Physical Well-being: Good health, physical fitness, and access to healthcare. 2. Emotional Well-being: A sense of happiness, contentment, purpose, and emotional stability. 3. Social Well-being: Strong relationships, social support, and a sense of belonging and connection to others. 4. Intellectual Well-being: Opportunities for education, learning, creativity, and intellectual growth. 5. Economic Well-being: Access to resources, financial stability, meaningful work, and economic opportunities. 6. Spiritual Well-being: A sense of meaning, purpose, and connection to something greater, whether through religion, philosophy, or personal values. Human flourishing is about living a life that is rich, meaningful, and balanced across different dimensions of well-being, allowing people to reach their full potential and contribute positively to their communities.  Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) is one of the most significant thinkers and the most accomplished individual who has ever lived. Every person currently living in Western civilization owes an enormous debt to Aristotle who is the fountainhead behind every achievement of science, technology, political theory, and aesthetics (especially Romantic art) in today's world. Aristotle's philosophy has underpinned the achievements of the Renaissance and of all scientific advances and technological progress to this very day. Aristotle bases the understandability of the good in the idea of what is good for the specific entity under consideration. For whatever has a natural function, the good is therefore thought to reside in the function. The natural function of a thing is determined by its natural end. With respect to living things, there are particular ways of being that constitute the perfection of the living thing's nature. According to Aristotle, there is an end of all of the actions that we perform which we desire for itself. This is what is known as eudaimonia, flourishing, or happiness, which is desired for its own sake with all other things being desired on its account. Eudaimonia is a property of one's life when considered as a whole. Flourishing is the highest good of human endeavors and that toward which all actions aim. It is success as a human being. The best life is one of excellent human activity. For Aristotle, the good is what is good for purposeful, goal-directed entities. He defines the good proper to human beings as the activities in which the life functions specific to human beings are most fully realized. For Aristotle, the good of each species is teleologically immanent to that species. A person's nature as a human being provides him with guidance with respect to how he should live his life. A fundamental fact of human nature is the existence of individual human beings each with his own rational mind and free will. The use of one's volitional consciousness is a person's distinctive capacity and means of survival.  Aristotle thought that it was possible to conduct rational research with respect to value. He saw practical science as an essentially evaluative or moral science. A practical science is ethical to the extent that it takes into account the ethical aspects of the subject being studied. Aristotle regarded reality as ordered and taught that order with respect to human affairs is a project or effort through which people aspire to happiness through the cultivation of virtues. He asserts that the end of politics is the good for man. According to Aristotle, the virtue of prudence is personal, freely pursued, and changeable according to situations. A prudent action for one individual may not be a prudent action for another person. Nevertheless, the integration of freely made prudent and varying actions results in social coordination. He believed that economic coordination is attainable when persons prudently choose and undertake economic transactions with others. Aristotle believed that human flourishing requires a life with other people. Technology as a Way of Revealing Martin Heidegger’s in His Definition of Technology Martin Heidegger, a German philosopher, offered a profound and complex definition of technology in his work "The Question Concerning Technology" (1954). Heidegger did not view technology simply as a collection of tools or machines; instead, he saw it as a way of revealing, a fundamental mode of human existence that shapes how we understand and interact with the world. Heidegger approaches the problem of technology with the purpose of finding its essence. The method is that of reducing technology to its fundamental being, so that all problems and aspects thereof may be understood. Heidegger pays special attention to language, frequently referring to the Greek and Latin origins of the vocabulary he introduces. In this manner, he successively reduces the essence of technology to simpler and more basic concepts until its relation to humankind is apparent. He is particularly fond of verbs. The essence of modern technology becomes a type of happening. After laying bare the nature of modern technology, Heidegger proceeds to identify the danger and saving power contained therein. As the "later Heidegger," Heidegger believes truth to be better approachable through poetry, through art, than by logic or science, and art is the essence of the salvation of technology. The rhetorical form of the article is to carefully characterize modern technology as a seemingly insoluble problem, then find the solution in the problem's very definition. Explication of Heidegger's reduction of technology will involve a series of definitions corresponding to the steps by which he strips technology down to its essence. 1. Instrumentality: technology is an instrument to achieve human ends, specifically those of building up or arranging. Technology is slipping out of control and its nature as an instrument causes frustration and excites the will to re-master it, which is a large factor in the growing discomfort with modern technology. 2. Causality: instruments are designed to for the purpose of causing an end. A deeper look into causality reveals that the end is the beginning: a cause is that to which something is indebted and the purpose for which an instrument is designed is the primary cause of its coming into being. The essence of causality is reduced to an occasioning, that is a bringing forth into presencing of something which is not presencing, the Greek poiesis. 3. Revealing: something is brought forth only when it passes from concealment into unconcealment; when it is revealed. Heidegger claims that revealing is what "truth" really means. The Greek for revealing, aletheia, is translated into veritas, truth, by the Romans. The equating of revealing with truth is pertinent to understanding the danger of technology. The Danger: Heidegger now separates modern technology from previous technology and specifies its peculiar type of revealing. This he shows to be a danger to humankind. Modern technology is based on modern physics, which is an exact science. It differs from previous technology in that it does not humble itself to natural forces like the windmill to wind. Rather, through physics, we can know the energy stored in nature and we can set upon nature and challenge it to release this energy. We mine coal and damn, rivers, thereby controlling resources, not merely harvesting them. Objects then become standing-reserve, ready to be ordered about by humans. Humans, however, are not the masters. We do not control revealing itself. The "real shows itself or withdraws". Revealing does not occur beyond humans, but also not decisively or exclusively in us. Thus we respond to "that challenging claim which gathers man thither to order the self-revealing as standing-reserve." In this way, we ourselves are standing reserve, being challenged to set upon all things, including ourselves, that they may be ready to be ordered about. This form of revealing is the essence of modern technology and Heidegger calls it Enframing. Revealing is not only a bringing forth, it is a destining, for that which revealing brings forth, revealing also starts upon its way. The revealing to us of Enframing destines us into the process of Enframing, and here lies the danger. This danger is the danger to the freedom of humankind. For Heidegger, "freedom is the realm of the destining that at any given time starts a revealing upon its way". Simply put, freedom is that revealing that destines more revealings. It is the revealing of the veil from under which revealing comes, as a veil. More simply put, it is the revealing of the fact that more revealings are possible.  Enframing destines us to Enframe. However, we appear to have such a decisive role in Enframing that we see ourselves as the masters of the world, the orderers of standing-reserve. In fact, we are but one standing-reserve ordering others because we are employed merely to the purpose of creating standing-reserve. When this purpose is governing our activity, we are so engrossed in ordering and securing standing-reserve that we do not recognize Enframing as a revealing. We thus lose awareness of our capacity for revelation. All objects become forms of standing-reserve, and we feel that we encounter only ourselves, but in fact, we do not encounter our essence, because this essence is revelation. Recall that freedom is the revealing of the possibility of more revealings. When we lose all awareness of revealing in general, we lose this also. We continue to blindly challenge and order standing-reserves. The Saving Power: The essence of technology contains the extreme danger to humankind by threatening the loss of what is most essentially human, our capacity for new revealings. The essence of technology is the revealing of Enframing and in that way, technology's essence is a permanent enduring in the sense of Plato's Ideas (or Forms). Again, Heidegger returns to language and notes that Goethe once equated to endure (währen) with to grant (gewähren). He claims "that which endures most primally out of the earliest beginning is what grants" (p.31). Enframing, though it presents the extreme danger of making impossible other destining revealings, is also a granting and as such gives humankind what we need, but cannot make: a part in the "coming-to-pass of truth" (p.32). Enframing is a type of revealing and seen as such it contains the saving power that is the granting of revealing. We must pay attention to the coming to presence of technology, as opposed to the material products of technology, and we may see the process of revealing as opposed to the standing-reserve as which technology causes things to reveal themselves. The saving power lies in looking into the extreme danger. We must look past the technological toward the essence of technology, the destining revealing that endangers our freedom. The arising of the saving power in this essence is the fact that it shows us that mankind belongs to revealing, to the coming to presence of truth. The essence of technology is part of the constellation of concealment and unconcealment, in which truth comes to presence. The sight of the saving power, however, is not the same as being saved. In addition to looking into the danger, Heidegger suggests a more tangible path to salvation. Heidegger's definition of technology goes beyond the practical or functional aspects of tools and machines. He sees technology as a fundamental way in which human beings disclose reality, shaping our relationship with the world in profound ways. While he acknowledges the potential of technology to transform our existence, he warns of its dangers and urges us to develop a more reflective and mindful relationship with it. Heidegger’s work encourages a deeper philosophical inquiry into how technology affects our understanding of the world and our place within it, challenging us to think beyond the mere utility of technological advancements.