Urban-Regional Planning History (TARLAC STATE UNIVERSITY) PDF

TARLAC STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE & FINE ARTS San Isidro Campus, Tarlac City PLANNING 3 – INTRODUCTION TO URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING GROUP 1 1. ANIAG, Joshua 2. DELA CRUZ, Chris Jan 3. DIZON, Dannilyn 4. DYPIANGCO, Trexie Nichole 5. LINDO, Rashine 6. LOPEZ, Wency 7. MAGLAYA, Angelique 8. MANDAP, Joshua 9. MARISTELA, Wendell 10. POLICARPIO, Robert Early History of Planning (Neolithic Settlements) Proto-City - lack of planning and centralized rule. ⮚ City of Babylon - The city plan of Babylon differs from the typical Neo-Assyrian urban layout in restoring the main religious buildings to a place of eminence. In contrast with Neo-Assyrian practice, the religious center and the palace areas are not elevated but are located on the same flat plane as the rest of the city. ⮚ Catalhoyuk – is a very large Neolithic and Chalcolithic proto-city settlement in southern Anatolia, which existed from approximately 7500 BC to 6400 BC and flourished around 7000 BC ⮚ Ancient Jericho - was famous for its walls which were thirteen feet high with watchtowers rising 28 feet, the first use of a wall for military defense in history. True Cities (3500 BC) ⮚ City of Uruk – Founded by King Enmerkar and known to be the birthplace of writing as well as for it’s architecture and cultural innovations. The city was divided into two sections: ▪ Older Anu District - The second district which honored Anu the God of heaven who was also believed by some to be the father of Inana. ▪ Eanna District - the Eanna district honoured the Inana, more commonly known in Sumeric tradition as Ishtar, Goddess of fertility, love, and war ⮚ Thebes - known to the Egyptians as Wase or Wo'se (the city) and Usast or Waset (the southern city) and was built on either side of the Nile River with the main city on the east bank and the vast necropolis on the west. ▪ A Egypt map, the circle indicates the site of Thebes; B General view of Seti I temple and its urban surrounding. ⮚ Memphis - city and capital of ancient Egypt and an important centre during much of Egyptian history. Memphis is located south of the Nile River delta, on the west bank of the river, and about 24 kilometers south of modern Cairo. ⮚ Old City of Damascus - Damascus is one of the oldest cities in the Middle East. In the Middle Ages, it was the center of a flourishing craft industry, specializing in swords and lace. The city has some 125 monuments from different periods of its history. ⮚ Mohenjo-Daro and Harrapa - is an archaeological site in Larkana District, Sindh, Pakistan. Built c. 2500 BCE, it was the largest settlement of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, and one of the world's earliest major cities History Of Planning: Pre-Classical And Classical Introduction Urban planning, the organized design and regulation of the physical structure of towns and cities, is as old as civilization itself. The history of planning can be divided into various eras, with pre-classical and classical periods providing foundational principles that continue to shape modern cities. Early settlements formed organically, while later, civilizations began to systematize urban development. This research will explore key aspects of planning during the pre-classical and classical periods, focusing on how different societies approached city design and organization. Pre-Classical Planning The pre-classical period marks the beginning of human attempts to organize space for living, driven primarily by the need for agriculture, defense, and religious practices. Settlements during this period were relatively small, but over time, they evolved into larger and more complex societies. Early Settlements The earliest known cities date back to around 10,000 BCE, where agriculture began to flourish, giving rise to permanent human settlements. Examples of early cities include Jericho in modern-day Palestine and Çatalhöyük in Turkey. These settlements were not formally planned but developed in an organic manner. Homes were often closely packed together for security purposes, and communal spaces were small, serving primarily religious functions. Jericho (9,000 BCE): One of the oldest cities, known for its protective walls, showcasing early urban defense planning. Çatalhöyük (7,500-5,700 BCE): A large settlement without streets, where buildings were clustered, and entry was through rooftops, indicating an early form of communal living. Egyptian Planning Ancient Egypt (3,000 BCE onwards) provides some of the earliest examples of formal city planning. Egyptian cities were hierarchical, with a clear social and spatial organization that reflected the status of the Pharaoh, religious institutions, and the general populace. Key Features: o Rectilinear street layouts. o Large ceremonial and religious structures, like the pyramids. o Centralized planning around palaces and temples. o Defensive walls surrounding urban areas. One notable example of Egyptian planning is Amarna, built during the reign of Pharaoh Akhenaten. The city was designed with a central royal palace and temples, surrounded by administrative and residential quarters, demonstrating an early form of zoning. Mesopotamian Planning Mesopotamia, located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (modern-day Iraq), is home to some of the earliest planned cities. Sumerian cities like Ur and Babylon (4,000-3,000 BCE) had structured layouts that served both practical and religious purposes. Key Features: o Grid-like Street patterns for ease of navigation. o Centralized political and religious structures, often dominated by ziggurats (massive, terraced structures). o Irrigation systems to support agriculture. o Defensive city walls to protect against invaders. The city of Babylon, famous for the Hanging Gardens, was one of the largest and most developed cities of the ancient world. The city was surrounded by massive walls, and its internal layout reflected careful planning, with major temples, a palace, and residential areas all coordinated within a rectangular grid. Classical Planning The classical period saw the formalization of urban planning principles, especially in Greek and Roman societies. These civilizations were influenced by the need for organized public spaces, military considerations, and infrastructure to support larger populations. Greek Planning Ancient Greece (900-100 BCE) made significant advancements in city planning, emphasizing the need for organized civic spaces and rational street layouts. The most notable contribution to urban planning from this period was the Hippodamian Plan, named after the Greek architect Hippodamus of Miletus, often considered the "father of city planning." Key Features: o Grid-based layouts for efficient movement within cities. o Clear division of spaces into residential, commercial, and public zones. o Centralized marketplaces called agoras. o Use of open public spaces and amphitheaters for social gatherings and cultural activities. The city of Priene is an exemplary model of the Hippodamian Plan. It was divided into neat, rectangular blocks, with public buildings such as temples, gymnasiums, and theaters located in the city center. Roman Planning The Romans (500 BCE - 400 CE) are known for refining and expanding upon Greek urban planning concepts. Roman cities were highly organized and designed to accommodate large populations, as well as the military and administrative functions of the empire. Key Features: o Cardo and Decumanus: The two main streets that intersected at the center of the city, forming a grid layout. o Public buildings such as forums, baths, temples, and amphitheaters located at the city center. o Advanced engineering infrastructure like aqueducts for water supply and roads for transportation, many of which are still in use today. o Defensive walls around cities, particularly those at the frontiers of the empire. One of the best-preserved examples of Roman planning is the city of Pompeii, which was laid out in a grid system and featured well-developed public amenities such as baths, theaters, and aqueducts. Comparison: Pre-Classical vs. Classical Planning Pre-Classical: Organic development, driven by immediate needs such as protection, religion, and agriculture. Cities were smaller, with a focus on practical and defensive concerns. Classical: Rational, organized planning, with an emphasis on public spaces, infrastructure, and social order. Cities were larger and more complex, reflecting a sophisticated understanding of space, culture, and governance. Influence on Modern Planning Both pre-classical and classical planning methods laid the groundwork for modern urban design principles. The grid layout, zoning of residential and public spaces, and the integration of infrastructure in classical city planning are still evident in contemporary cities. For example, cities like Washington D.C. in the United States and Barcelona in Spain reflect classical influences in their design. Conclusion The history of urban planning from pre-classical to classical times reveals a continuous evolution of how human societies shaped their living environments. From the organic layouts of early settlements to the grid-based, functional designs of Greek and Roman cities, these ancient practices have profoundly influenced modern urban planning. By studying these early developments, we gain a deeper understanding of how cities have grown to serve the needs of their inhabitants over millennia. References History of urban planning - Wikiwand. (2021). Wikiwand.com. https://www.wikiwand.com/en/articles/History_of_urban_planning Track2Training. (2021, April 30). The History of Urban Planning. International Journal of Research (IJR); International Journal of Research (IJR). https://internationaljournalofresearch.com/2021/04/30/the-history-of-urban- planning%E2%80%AF/ History Of Planning: Greco-Roman Culture The Greco-Roman world, characterized by its vibrant cities and sophisticated civilizations, laid a foundation for many modern urban planning principles. Their approach to city planning was influenced by factors such as: Philosophical Ideals: The Greeks, in particular, believed in the importance of harmony, balance, and order in society. This influenced their urban planning, which often sought to create aesthetically pleasing and functional cities. Practical Needs: As cities grew in size and complexity, there was a need to address practical issues like sanitation, transportation, and defense. These needs shaped the design and layout of cities. Cultural and Religious Traditions: The Greeks and Romans had specific cultural and religious traditions that influenced the placement of certain buildings, such as temples and theaters. Planning in Greco-Roman Culture The Greco-Roman world, encompassing ancient Greece and Rome, laid the foundation for many modern urban planning concepts. Their cities were designed with a focus on functionality, aesthetics, and social order. Key Features of Greco-Roman Urban Planning 1. Grid Systems: One of the most prominent features of Greco-Roman cities was the use of grid systems. Streets were laid out in a rectangular pattern, making navigation easier and facilitating the distribution of goods and services. 2. Central Forums: The forum was the heart of a Greco-Roman city. It served as a marketplace, a political gathering place, and a social hub. Important public buildings like temples, basilicas, and government offices were often located around the forum. 3. Aesthetics and Symmetry: The Greeks were known for their emphasis on beauty and harmony. Their cities were designed with an eye towards aesthetics, with buildings and public spaces arranged in a symmetrical manner. 4. Public Health and Sanitation: The Romans were particularly advanced in terms of public health. They built aqueducts to supply cities with clean water, sewers to remove waste, and public baths for sanitation. 5. Defense and Security: Cities were often fortified with walls and gates to protect against attacks. Strategic placement of buildings and defensive features was important to ensure the city's security. Notable Examples of Greco-Roman City Planning Athens: A major center of Greek civilization, Athens was renowned for its beautiful architecture, including the Acropolis and the Parthenon. The city was designed with a focus on public spaces and civic pride. Rome: The Eternal City, Rome, was a sprawling metropolis that grew over centuries. Its urban planning reflected the influence of both Greek and Etruscan traditions, with a focus on practicality and efficiency. Pompeii: Preserved by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, Pompeii offers a glimpse into the daily life of a Roman city. Its well-preserved streets, buildings, and public spaces provide valuable insights into Roman urban planning. In conclusion, the Greco-Roman world made significant contributions to the field of urban planning. Their innovative ideas and practices continue to influence modern city design and development. Greek Contributions to Urban Planning Hippodamus of Miletus: Often considered the "father of urban planning," Hippodamus proposed a grid-based layout for cities. This system, characterized by orthogonal streets and rectangular blocks, facilitated navigation, efficient land use, and improved sanitation. The Polis: The Greek city-state, or polis, was a central unit of governance. Its urban design often featured a central agora (marketplace), temples, and public buildings, reflecting the importance of civic participation and cultural life. Roman Urban Planning Imperial Cities: The Roman Empire established numerous cities throughout its vast territory. These cities, often modeled after Greek prototypes, incorporated elements such as forums, amphitheaters, and baths. Urban Infrastructure: Romans were renowned for their engineering prowess. They constructed aqueducts to supply fresh water, sewers to improve sanitation, and extensive road networks to connect their empire. Colonization: Rome established colonies to expand its territory and control conquered lands. These colonies often followed a standardized urban plan, reflecting the Roman ideal of a well-organized city. Key Principles of Greco-Roman Urban Planning Functionality: Cities were designed to serve practical needs, such as commerce, administration, and defense. Aesthetics: Urban spaces were often embellished with temples, statues, and public gardens, enhancing the city's appearance and cultural significance. Social Order: The layout of cities reflected social hierarchies, with elite residences located in prime areas and public spaces designed to accommodate civic gatherings. The legacy of Greco-Roman urban planning can be seen in the enduring influence of grid- based layouts, the importance of public spaces, and the integration of infrastructure into urban design. These principles continue to shape modern city planning practices. References: Oxfordbibliographies. (2018) Colonization in the Roman Empire - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies. www.oxfordbibliographies.com Cambridge Org. (2014) Urban Design and Architecture in Rome and Italy during the Republic and the Early Empire (Chapter 1) - Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org History (2020) Roman Forum Definition, Map & Reconstruction www.history.com Smart history (2022) The Roman Forum (Forum Romanum) https://smarthistory.org/ Linda Ellis (2019) How City Planning Has Roots in Ancient Greece https://medium.com/ MedicalNewsToday (2020) Ancient Roman medicine: Influences, practice, and learning https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/ National Geographic Education (2024)Roman Aqueducts https://education.nationalgeographic.org/ Rick Steves (2023) Europe Pompeii: Italy's Frozen-in-Time Roman City https://www.ricksteves.com/ History Of Planning: Medieval Europe & Renaissance and Barouque Europe Medieval Age - Dark ages - The eclipse in the European civilization between the fall of the Roman Empire in the West ( 4 th and 5th centuries) and the re-emergence of activity in the Early Middle Ages (10th- 12th centuries) The expression of the medieval idea that "city air makes one free" took the form of social, political, and physical arrangements that still influence the layout of contemporary cities. Unlike classical cultures, medieval cities took on a variety of shapes and rarely established formal models. Their physical shapes developed in response to social, economic, and geographic conditions that they freely adapted to. The public and private domains in late medieval European towns were mediated by intermediary entities including professional guilds, vocational associations, and religious institutions, notwithstanding the socio economic hardships of feudalism. Alleys, streets, and squares were examples of public spaces that were essential to the social dynamics of the urban neighborhood. (Fig. 1a). 1. Church element - church, cathedral, cloisters, monastery. 2. Secular element - castle or fortress - especially dominant in England and Germany 3. Civic element - Walls and gates, town houses, town hall, guild hall, market place. Planning Principles 1. SPONTANEOUS/ORGANIC TOWNS - Linear, Radial, Radiocentric, network, triangular, combination, and natural or historic Plans 2. PLANNED, GEOMETRIC TOWNS - Bastides, and Gridiron system - Radiocentric: the main streets depart from the center - from important urban amenities - following the gates and are intersected by concentric smaller and secondary roads. - typical medieval town, which includes linear schemes, cross-shaped cities, radio centric cities, fishbone-like plans, acropolis cities, among others. - relatively small, allowing for specific forms of sociability that favored gathering and interaction in public spaces, mainly because of commerce - "walled living," - The Medieval city has much in common with Ancient Greece 1. The emerging powers become prominent in both the ecclesiastical and secular worlds. The Secular Power was characterized by Rural tendencies: Emperors, Kings, Princes and Barons did not, as a rule, think of making their permanent residences in cities (France is an exception) instead, they established themselves in: Castles and Fortresses, Palatinates, Royal Palaces, and the courts and these settlement ‘cells’ (typical of the Germanic spirit prevailing at the time) grew with time and developed into new cities. Between the 5th and 12th centuries, the seat of government and power was constantly shifting. Kings, their courts and their supporters were always ‘en route’ travelling around their kingdom, seeking homage of their subjects, as well as gifts, taxes, and bribes. They would follow fixed itineraries and visit certain localities, where residence would be taken up for a period. This custom, naturally, favoured the development of residence cities (residences of royal power in absentia). The church exhibited strong Urban tendencies The church was well formed at the beginning of the Middle Ages. Bishops became untiring defenders of the urban concept: they either took up their bishopric in remains of earlier cities or founded new ones around their churches and cathedrals. From the 5th century, the Christian church became the strongest civilising force in Europe, whose growing network of monasteries constituted the only international organisation. Within monastery walls lay the treasures and the records of the earlier civilisation; monks were the practical pioneers in the early Medieval period, playing a major part in the then acute problems of land clearing, draining fens, cutting down forests and building of bridges. Its growth cells were: Churches Cloisters Monasteries Convents Some of these grew on old Roman town centres, while others grew near them or completely outside in the rural landscape. 2. The General state of Insecurity and Uncertainty - Europe and its population were fragmented. The section of the population who was not engaged in warfare was forced to seek protection i.e. craftsmen, artisans, merchants; accordingly, they preferred to settle near centres of spiritual or worldly power and pay for their protection with taxes, military service or their freedom 3. Growing need and desire for goods and services - Permanent commercial centres establish where one might expect a large buying and selling hinterland e.g. Venice led the trade revival in 10th century and spread it to other cities, reanimating and transforming them. Renaissance Renaissance builders attempted to impose a formal classical order on the organic structure of medieval cities. Alberti, Palladio, Bramante, and other Renaissance architects’ planners (15th century) favored simple geometry and pure forms. Thus, expansive plazas and straight roads with symmetrical compositions and strong axes were carved out of the dense medieval urban maze (Gallionet al., 1986, 44). Renaissance Planners did not substantially eradicate the cramped medieval urban fabric (Fig. 1b) but rather juxtaposed monumental squares and straight roads with the old irregular streets (Southworth et al., 1997,14e18; Broadbent, 1990,35e7). However, the Renaissance period witnessed the emergence of a wealthy and powerful aristocracy that aimed to distinguish its life from the masses. Aristocrats generally sought social distinction through civic benefactions and physical secession from the public (Vance, 1990, 203e6). Weber noted that Renaissance urbanity promoted and helped institutionalize the sciences and the arts, which consequently created a multitude of crafts and professions that shaped the city’s civic identity city (Zijderveld, 1998). THE SHIFTING IN URBAN PLANNING THROUGH MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE PERIOD Throughout the Renaissance era, Florence was an international hub for trading and banking. The factors that caused Florence to become modernized included many urban centers that were booming in international trade and banking; political turmoil between the church and the state; and Florentine architects, such as Leon Alberti and Filippo Brunelleschi who invented the theory of linear perspective. There are many elements of change from the Medieval Ages to the Renaissance era. For example, these involved cultural ideologies shifting away from God and the soul at the center to a new society of freedom of thought through scientific advancements. Moreover, in this historic time period, culture, politics, individuality and man being portrayed as having equality to God, played a key role in town-planning, and the way in which buildings were designed. The industrialization period incorporated renaissance theories of urban planning throughout modern cities like Milan and sparked the value of preserving heritage sites that were initiated from planning laws in Bologna and the Emilia Romagna region. As a result, the city of Florence throughout the medieval ages has transformed greatly from the design of buildings and city planning being heavily influenced by Christianity to a modern harmonious city of man in the Renaissance. The Renaissance revealed a strong shift that moved away from God and the soul to the self and individualistic drives. This transformation demonstrated a modern change. Although there were still restrictions, many of the new buildings did not have to be erected uniformly. Consequently, the height of banks, monuments, and business districts showed the importance of power within the city. Throughout the fifteenth century, men’s self-desires were fulfilled by wanting more individual larger and impressive buildings that emphasized civic pride. Alberti stated that Renaissance architecture was the new spirit in which Florentines built and was generated in an atmosphere of a civic world that took shape in Florence (Goldthwaite, 69). This is significant because it draws many parallels in today’s world in which people can customize their own private homes in public spaces that can be transformed into mansions in many neighborhoods surrounded by average sized housing. Furthermore, the individual driven designs of some elegant homes would state their dominance over their neighbors or portray a God like figure with well- maintained properties that could be admired and be perceived as a heavenly paradise. One could view this situation as the individual man being classified as an honored wealthy person within their own neighborhood. As uprisings of new scientific discoveries and beliefs became dominant throughout the Renaissance era, it resulted in the foundation for city planning in Florence. For example, Alberti revealed that the ancients had used astrology and placed great significance on the exact time and moment to commence construction. He stated that “many advise that construction should not commence until an auspicious occasion, since great importance is attached to the moment in time when anything enters existence” (Lindow, 52). Alberti’s statement directly correlates to the notion that science had become the modern answer to truth that rejected faith and trust in God. This age of new discovery did not only reflect in the behavior of society itself but also in the architecture of the buildings that were constructed in this time period. In addition, fifteenth century Florence was a time of rapid house building and beautifying the city in order for architects to leave their masterpieces behind for future generations along with their family status of wealth. The reason for this included the increase in population which stimulated the need for new properties within the city walls. However, since religious institutions owned most of the available empty sites within the city, properties were increasingly being constructed outside the city walls (Lindow, 54). This was vital as more houses were being built beyond the city walls which had physically relocated people to live further from the churches and cathedrals in the city center. From a physical standpoint, this demonstrates a point of view in which people were forced to move farther away from religious buildings due to industrialization and rising capitalist markets in city centers. Another law was passed in 1471 that further strengthened the attitude of the people towards buildings and public space. The provisions under the Ornamento della Citta, included zoning regulations that encouraged bankers, goldsmiths, and cloth merchants to concentrate along the Strada Romana to increase the sale of Sinese goods to the visitors; and the removal of projecting balconies that reduced both movement and light among the street (55). These laws were important in developing the mindset of the public that valued and actively participated in collectively improving the image of Florence. Family wealth is another important element when analyzing this time period as many of the buildings and monuments that had been established were meant to make a statement of family wealth in public spaces. Public spaces, such as the piazza, started to introduce more communal festivities, and profitable trading among the citizens. For example, many of the urban spaces in Florence revealed negotiations of power relationships among individuals, families, corporate groups and public authorities (Strocchia, 61). The change in how urban spaces were used during the renaissance era was significant not only for expressing religious events but developed a more dynamic commercial, social, and political meaning. As a result, city planners began to change the design of urban cores in order to accommodate the new social and political ways of utilizing public space. For instance, mercantilism forced the widening of via Martelli to facilitate the flow of commercial goods to Mercato Vecchio, the city’s main mercantile forum (Strocchia, 62). This allowed many of the urban spaces in Florence to become liberalized in creating a dynamic utilization of space. Government palaces were built at the same height of cathedrals which proclaimed superiority of the commune (62). This revealed the importance of the power that government authorities had on the Florentines which slowly shifted from the church being the only dominant power over its citizens. The family coat of arms that were displayed among many street corners of the piazza’s had also revealed its dominance over the working class and was also meant to be honored. The family coat of arms had been used strategically in order to show its importance over public space. In conclusion, the architecture and public spaces throughout the Medieval ages had transformed from placing Christianity at the forefront into a city created by man and civic pride in Renaissance Florence. There were many key factors that initiated these changes including the reconstruction of communal spaces and designing new buildings that promoted a capitalist society through uprisings of mercantilism. Moreover, many Florentines started to focus their beliefs more on scientific facts rather than God through new technological advancements. The design of the Ponte Vecchio revealed this through its structure that was based on the theory of Boethian mathematics in which rational geometry from a single unit of measurement and harmonic proportions was used. Furthermore, the proportions of the arches and the Piazza della Signoria were designed in order to emulate each pedestrian that was passing at the center of the piazza to be equal to God and his divine order. These new ideologies that were incorporated in town planning and architecture throughout Renaissance Florence resonated in the city’s politics. This was done through passing legislations that resulted in establishing social norms, like valuing civic pride and improving the image of Florence as a whole. Moreover, Brunelleschi’s modern discovery of linear perspective was important for initiating urban planning and Renaissance architecture in developing homogenous terms of wall, light space, and articulation through his works. Lastly, industrialization changed the practice of urban planning in which preservation of historical sites and public involvement became the main objective for contemporary urban planning. However, the modern city of Milan was able to keep the fundamentals of renaissance architecture and planning by having town planners use linear perspective when designing greenspaces. Components of urban design in the Renaissance period the straight main street the grid-iron district (history’s oldest urban form regulator) enclosed space (squares) IDEAL CITIES OF THE RENAISSANCE Vitruvius Alberti Filarete – “Trattato dell’Architettura” Leonardo Cataneo – 8 books “L’Architettura” Scamozzi – Palma Nuova (“L’idea dell’Architettura Universale”) Lorini Baroque Baroque planning attempted to establish an orchestrated design structure for the medieval Renaissance mishmash (Fig. 1c). The idea was to create a movement system that would tie down the critical components of the city and enhance its overall visual order (Barnette, 1986, 10; Bacon, 1967, 117-41; Broadbent,1990). Mumford (1961) indicated that Baroque planning transpired a shift in emphasis from building walkable ﬁne-grained architectural enclosures, characteristic of medieval cities to engineered urban environments suitable for wheeled trafﬁc and power display. The ultimate baroque statement was exempliﬁed in planning royal cities, such as Versailles, Karlsruhe, and St. Petersburg. Avenues radiated from the royal palaces and stretched almost inﬁnitely amid highly ordered and scenically designed gardens and urban precincts (Mumford, 1961; Gallion et al., 1986; Vance, 1990). The Baroque spatial conﬁgurations had a pervasive inﬂuence on subsequent European city development, as manifested in 19th-century Haussmann’s plans for Paris. They also crossed the Atlantic via L’Enfant’s original concept for Washington (1792) and Burnham’s “City Beautiful” monumental schemes for Chicago (1893e1909). The latter were derivatives from Baroque Planning visions (Fig.1c). RISE OF BAROQUE TOWN PLANNING: Western Europe hegemony: The rise of Dutch and English cities. The development of Atlantic trading. A widespread urban decline in many other areas: natural disasters, disease, warfare. Antwerp and Amsterdam as leading cities. Banking, commerce, cultural life. A new urban modernity emerged. Social life Mortality and immigration: the outbreaks of bubonic plague. The women’s movement to the big city. Discipline function of neighbourhood. Centralized relief agencies. The flourishing of capital cities. New urban lifestyles. Economic transformations Manufacturing, trading and State control. The importance of Atlantic ports. Growing fiscal levies on the city. The role of luxury and fashionable consumer goods.Printing industry. The development of the service sector. Baroque landscape Baroque ideas on geometrical planning were only haphazardly implemented within existing towns. The example of Noto in Sicily. Ruralization of urban landscape and urbanization of surrounding areas. The ‘petrification’ of town dwellings. Urban culture The fondness of citizens for possessions. New consumer patterns. Diversification in domestic spaces. The metropolitan context gained wider moral and social acceptance. The changed notion of time. BAROQUE URBAN PLANNING: Baroque urban planning was first manifested in spaces between groups of buildings, such as Michelangelo´s Piazza del Campidoglio in Rome ,started in 1536 and the space between the two parallel wings of Uffizzi in Florence by Vasari, built with advice from Michelangelo, between 1560-1574. BAROQUE CITY PLANNING IN ROME: The city planning featured multiple Baroque characteristics. The sites were connected through the figural voided axes with an obelisk reinforcing a visual connection seen from long distances. The experience creates drama and heightens the emotions by featuring the topography in the urban planning. Anticipation builds, scaling the hills of the city to reach the next focal point. The Baroque also features ambiguity through a multiplicity of centers, present with the various radial axes in the plan. Yet through the multiple centers, a spatial continuity weaves through the connected axes Perspective is exaggerated through the placement of buildings and obelisks at the tops of hills to reinforce visual connection. Perspective was also exaggerated on streets such as Via del Corso , which has a similar building heights, proportion of buildings and datum of windows reading the majority of the street. The figural voided axes were carved through the existing context of the Roman to Renaissance era city of the urban fabric. Defining and carving these axes through a city was quite powerful and monumental. It happened successfully in Rome because the Papacy holds significant political power and financial backing to facilitate the plan. Giambattista Nolli designed this well-known drawing and map in 1748, encapsulating the urban fabric of central Rome at this date. Rome is the center of the Christian world with many churches defined as public spaces. The map highlights the street organization from the Baroque Replanning of Rome, featuring streets connecting religious buildings through the city. The Nolli map further reinforces the religious fabric mapping the connections between many churches and courtyards as a network through the city. The shaded areas are reserved as private areas contrasting from and framing the public areas of the city. Baroque urban design is the result of the centralised church and autocratic power - hierarchy of meanings - definite sense of spatial direction The city planning featured multiple Baroque characteristics. The sites were connected through the figural voided axes with an obelisk reinforcing a visual connection seen from long distances. The experience creates drama and heightens the emotions by featuring the topography in the urban planning. Ghisleni, C. (2020, November 30). 9 Cities with Medieval Plans Seen from Above. ArchDaily. https://www.archdaily.com/952084/9-cities-with-medieval-plans-seen-from-above Gutjahr, C. M. (1999). 705-117 CULTURE & HISTORY OF URBAN PLANNING Lecture Notes PART 4 - Medieval Cities. http://rubens.anu.edu.au/htdocs/bycountry/italy/rome/popolo/melbourne.planning/Part4- Medieval_Cities.pdf Kashef, M., & ElShafie, M. (2020). Multifaceted perspective on North American urban development. Frontiers of Architectural Research, 9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.12.006 History Of Planning: Enlightenment, Europe And America What is Enlightenment? https://www.sporcle.com/blog/2020/02/what-was-the-enlightenment/ The Enlightenment, a pivotal intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries, profoundly shaped both Europe and America. Also known as the "Age of Reason," it emphasized the power of human reason, scientific inquiry, and individual liberty. Enlightenment thinkers sought to challenge established traditions, especially in politics, religion, and society, advocating for freedom, equality, and progress. These ideals spurred innovations in governance, philosophy, and science. Most historians consider the Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, to span the period between 1685-1815. In essence, this period was a time when a lot of the great thinkers across Europe began to question the bounds of conventional authority and embraced the idea of rational thinking as a way to enforce change. This mentality arguably initiated a cultural shift that was clearly visible in art, science, and politics. In fact, a lot of modern ideas and concepts are rooted in this philosophy. In a lot of ways, the Enlightenment represented a return to the classic ideas and thoughts we saw in ancient Greece and Rome. These ideas stood in contrast to those of the Middle Ages, where the rules of Christianity superseded everything else. Underappreciated work of the past, like that of Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler, was revisited during this time. In Europe, philosophers like Voltaire, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau critiqued absolute monarchy and the authority of the Church, promoting concepts like democracy, secularism, and the social contract. These ideas played a crucial role in reshaping European politics, inspiring movements for political reform and individual rights. In America, Enlightenment principles had a profound impact on the founding of the United States. Thinkers such as Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin drew on European Enlightenment ideas to craft the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution. The focus on natural rights, government by consent, and the separation of powers reflected the intellectual currents of the time and laid the groundwork for modern democratic institutions. The Enlightenment's transatlantic influence helped ignite revolutionary movements, such as the American Revolution (1775-1783) and the French Revolution (1789), reshaping both continents and leaving a lasting legacy on modern thought and governance. Role of the Enlightenment in Urban Planning https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Edinburgh_Old_Town_Boundaries_with_New_Town.svg One great example of how Enlightenment also contributed to the reformation of urban planning is Edinburgh’s urban plan, the capital of Scotland. The historic centre has two distinct areas: the Old Town, dominated by a medieval fortress, and the neoclassical New Town, whose development from the 18th century onwards had a far-reaching influence on European urban planning. Significant town-planning components include the urban layout, buildings, open spaces and views, which show the difference between the organic growth of the Old Town and the planned New Town. Old Town https://ewh.org.uk/the-old-town/ The Old Town, which developed organically since the 12th century, stretches along a high ridge from Castle Rock down to the Palace of Holyrood. Its form reflects the burgage plots of the Canongate, founded as an “abbatial burgh” dependent on the Abbey of Holyrood, and the national tradition of building tall on the narrow “tofts” or plots separated by lanes or “closes” which created some of the world’s tallest buildings of their age. It is characterized by the survival of the little-altered medieval “fishbone” street pattern of narrow closes, wynds, and courts leading off the spine formed by the High Street. Buildings are typically in masonry or stone, built tall on the narrow “tofts” or plots separated by lanes or “closes”. Public spaces are mainly paved squares and pedestrian streets. New Town https://www.visitorsguidetoscotland.com/2020/12/edinburgh-new-town/ The New Town, constructed between 1767 and 1890, is a collection of seven new towns on the glacial plain to the north of the Old Town. It is framed and articulated by planned ensembles of ashlar-faced, neo-classical buildings, on a consistent scale of three storey, attic and basement, sometimes punctuated by four storey corner and central pavilions. The urban design includes an extensive network of private and public gardens. Urban Planning During the Enlightenment Urban planning during the Enlightenment was a transformative period that reshaped cities across Europe and America. Driven by Enlightenment principles such as reason, order, and public welfare, urban planners sought to create functional and beautiful urban spaces. This era led to significant architectural and planning innovations that have left a lasting impact on contemporary urban design. Urban Planning Principles in Europe During the Enlightenment, urban planning in Europe focused on embellishment and public convenience. Key concepts included architectural magnificence, regularity, and symmetry, which aimed to create coherent urban environments that served commerce and stimulated art and culture. This shift was notably exemplified in the rebuilding of Lisbon after the 1755 earthquake, which applied rational principles of city planning that were influenced by earlier European models. Notable Urban Planning Projects in Europe Significant urban planning projects materialized during this time, including Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann's renovation of Paris under Napoleon III. Haussmann’s redesign included wide boulevards, public parks, and an organized street layout that enhanced connectivity and aesthetics. Another critical example is Edinburgh's New Town, constructed between 1767 and 1850, which provided a modern urban layout to accommodate the growing professional class and reflected Enlightenment ideals of order and beauty. Impact of Enlightenment Thinkers on European Urban Planning Enlightenment thinkers such as Voltaire and Rousseau greatly influenced urban planning practices with their advocacy for reason and reform. Their ideas encouraged planners to view cities as living environments that must address public welfare and reflect the rational order. The emphasis on creating cities that facilitated social interaction and cultural exchange was reflective of the Enlightenment's broader intellectual currents. This led to planners incorporating wider streets and public squares designed for civic engagement. Urban Planning Developments in America In America, the influence of Enlightenment ideas was evident in the design of cities that emphasized symmetry and organization. L'Enfant's radiating plan for Washington, D.C. showcased the significance of parks and public squares, reflecting European models while catering to American ideals of openness and accessibility. The adoption of grid systems and the creation of urban parks in cities like Philadelphia and New York City further illustrated the impact of Enlightenment thinking on urban design and the importance of public spaces for civic life. Similar to Europe, urban planning in America during the Enlightenment was influenced by Enlightenment ideas, particularly the pursuit of rationality in city designs. One notable example is L'Enfant's radiating plan for Washington, D.C., which was inspired by European models and emphasized symmetry and accessibility. The emphasis on parks, public spaces, and promenades in American cities reflected the Enlightenment's ideals of enhancing public life and ensuring health. Impact on Modern Urban Planning The principles and practices established during the Enlightenment continue to resonate in contemporary urban planning. The focus on public welfare, rational organization, and aesthetic appeal laid the groundwork for modern urban design approaches. As cities grapple with modern challenges such as sustainability and population growth, the enduring legacy of Enlightenment urban planning serves as a reference point for developing inclusive, functional, and beautiful urban environments that prioritize the needs of their inhabitants. Conclusion Urban planning during the Enlightenment was characterized by a commitment to reason, beauty, and public welfare, profoundly influencing both European and American cities. This period's advancements reflect an essential evolution in the relationship between urban spaces and the communities they serve, paving the way for modern planning practices. The influence of Enlightenment principles on urban planning in Europe and America marked a revolutionary shift in how cities were designed and structured. Enlightenment thinkers emphasized rationality, order, and public welfare, shaping urban planning practices that prioritized the needs of citizens and sought to create functional, aesthetically pleasing environments. This period laid the foundation for modern urban design, with lasting impacts evident in contemporary planning approaches. REFERENCES Chessler, K. (n.d.). 3.7: Art in the Enlightenment: Baroque, Rococo, and Neoclassicism | HUM 140: Introduction to Humanities | Page 1000. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-fmcc-hum140/chapter/3-9-art-in-the-enlightenm ent-the-baroque-and-rococo/1000/ Duignan, B. (2024, August 9). Enlightenment | Definition, Summary, Ideas, Meaning, History, Philosophers, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Enlightenment-European-history Guerra, M. W., Abarkan, A., Romón, M. a. C., & Pekár, M. (2022). European Planning History in the 20th Century. In Routledge eBooks. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003271666 https://archovavisuals.com/urban-planning-in-america-historical-and-current-trends/ What Was the Enlightenment and Why Was It Important?. (2020, February). https://www.sporcle.com/blog/2020/02/what-was-the-enlightenment/ New and Old Towns of Edinburgh. (n. d.). https://whc.unesco.org/en/urban-heritage-atlas/edinburgh/ HISTORY PLANNING: COLONIAL AMERICA Overview of Colonial America Colonial America refers to the period from the early 16th century through the 18th century when European powers explored, colonized, and established settlements in North America. This era ended with the formation of the United States following the Revolutionary War (1775–1783). The primary European nations involved in colonizing North America were England, France, Spain, and the Dutch Republic. Each of these colonial powers had different goals, strategies, and impacts on the region. 1. Spanish Colonization: Spain was one of the earliest and most influential colonial powers in the Americas. The Spanish primarily focused on the southern regions, including what is now Florida, the American Southwest, and parts of California. They sought to extract wealth, especially gold and silver, and to spread Christianity through the establishment of missions. Spanish colonization often involved the subjugation and conversion of Native American populations and the development of a colonial economy reliant on forced labor, including the encomienda system. 2. French Colonization: France focused on exploring and establishing colonies in the northern parts of North America, including what is now Canada (particularly Quebec) and the Mississippi River Valley down to Louisiana. French colonization was characterized by fur trading, close alliances, and relatively cooperative relationships with Native American tribes, such as the Huron and Algonquin. The French also established missions to convert indigenous people to Christianity but were generally less aggressive in their conversion efforts than the Spanish. 3. Dutch Colonization: The Dutch Republic established colonies in the early 17th century, most notably in what is now New York (formerly New Amsterdam) and parts of the mid- Atlantic region. Dutch colonization was driven primarily by trade, particularly the fur trade. The Dutch West India Company played a central role in managing these colonies, which were more commercially oriented and featured relatively liberal policies regarding trade and immigration. However, Dutch control was relatively short-lived, as their colonies were seized by the English in the mid-17th century. 4. English Colonization: England established some of the most populous and economically significant colonies along the Atlantic coast, such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania. English colonization began with the founding of Jamestown in 1607 and expanded to encompass thirteen colonies by the mid-18th century. These colonies varied widely in their economies, social structures, and governance. The New England colonies, for example, were known for their Puritan religious foundations, small-scale farming, and trade. The Southern colonies, such as Virginia and the Carolinas, developed plantation economies reliant on enslaved African labor. The middle colonies, such as Pennsylvania and New York, were known for their ethnic diversity, religious tolerance, and mixed economies of farming and trade. Each of these colonial powers left a lasting legacy on the development of North America, shaping its cultural, economic, political, and social landscape. These varied colonial histories set the stage for conflicts among European powers, interactions and conflicts with Native American tribes, and the eventual rise of independent American identities that culminated in the Revolutionary War and the creation of the United States. Diverse Origins of Colonists The settlers in Colonial America came from a variety of European backgrounds, including English, Dutch, French, Spanish, and Swedish origins. These settlers represented a range of social groups, such as adventurers seeking new opportunities, indentured servants working to pay off their passage to the New World, and religious dissenters escaping persecution. This diverse composition of settlers contributed to a rich tapestry of cultural and social norms in the colonies, leading to the development of distinct local identities in different regions. The blending of different traditions, beliefs, and practices played a crucial role in shaping the unique cultural landscape of early America, where varied languages, customs, and social structures coexisted and evolved over time. Different Groups of Settlers: The settlers who came to North America were not all the same. They came from various backgrounds, including: Adventurers: People looking for excitement and new experiences. Farmers: Those who wanted to grow crops and raise animals. Indentured Servants: People who worked for a certain number of years to pay off their travel costs. Tradesmen: Skilled workers who made things or provided services. Aristocrats: A very small number of wealthy people who had high social status. Diverse Settler Groups: Different groups settled in different areas. For example: The Dutch settled in New Netherland (now New York). The Swedes and Finns settled in New Sweden (parts of Delaware and Pennsylvania). The Quakers were in Pennsylvania, known for their peaceful beliefs. The Puritans settled in New England, seeking religious freedom. The Cavaliers were wealthy English settlers in Virginia. The Catholics and Protestant Nonconformists settled in Maryland. The Germans moved to the mid-Atlantic colonies. The Ulster Scots settled in the Appalachian Mountains. Becoming Part of the United States: All these groups eventually became part of the United States when it declared independence in 1776. This means they contributed to the culture, economy, and society of the new nation. Impact on Native American Populations The arrival of European settlers had a profound and devastating impact on Native American populations. One of the most significant factors was the introduction of diseases such as smallpox, measles, and influenza, to which Native Americans had no natural immunity. These diseases spread rapidly, causing catastrophic mortality rates. It is estimated that diseases brought by Europeans killed up to 90% of some indigenous communities, leading to a dramatic decline in the Native American population across North America. This massive depopulation had several consequences. For European settlers, the decline in Native populations made it easier to expand their settlements and claim more land. The reduced numbers of Native Americans meant there was less immediate resistance to European encroachment on their territories. However, the impact on Native American societies was profound and tragic. Entire communities were wiped out, and many social, cultural, and political structures were disrupted or destroyed. Survivors often faced further displacement as European settlers pushed deeper into the continent. Additionally, the collapse of Native populations led to shifts in alliances, trade patterns, and power dynamics among remaining tribes, as they had to adapt to the rapidly changing environment imposed by European colonization. The cultural and social disruption also included the loss of traditional knowledge, practices, and languages, as fewer people were left to pass them on to future generations. Native American societies were forced to negotiate, resist, or accommodate the new realities brought by European expansion, which frequently resulted in conflict, dispossession, and further marginalization. Economic Systems and Mercantilism Mercantilism was an economic theory and practice that dominated European thought from the 16th to the 18th centuries. It emphasized the importance of accumulating wealth, primarily gold and silver, by maximizing exports and minimizing imports. The idea was that a nation's wealth and power were best served by increasing its exports and collecting precious metals in return. Under mercantilism, colonies were seen as sources of raw materials and as markets for the mother country's manufactured goods. For the British Empire, the American colonies were valuable because they provided raw materials like tobacco, cotton, and sugar that could not be produced in England. In return, the colonies were expected to purchase finished goods from Britain. To enforce this system, Britain implemented a series of laws, such as the Navigation Acts, which restricted colonial trade to English or colonial ships and mandated that certain "enumerated goods" (like tobacco and sugar) could only be exported to England or English colonies. However, these mercantilist policies created significant tension between the colonies and Britain. The colonies, for their part, wanted to trade freely with other countries to get the best prices for their goods and to import goods that were not available from Britain. British regulations limited this ability, which led to economic frustrations and resistance. Colonists began to see these policies as restrictive and exploitative, laying the groundwork for economic conflicts that ultimately contributed to the growing desire for independence. Colonial Governance Colonial governance in America underwent significant evolution from its initial phases of direct oversight by the British Crown to increasingly autonomous forms of self-governance as the colonies expanded and developed. The governance structures varied across the colonies, reflecting differences in their founding charters, economic conditions, and local circumstances. While early governance was marked by close control and direction from England, the colonies gradually developed their institutions and practices, laying the groundwork for later calls for independence. Privy Council of England: This was a group of important advisors to the king. In the beginning, they were the main people who made decisions about the colonies. Think of them like a board of directors who help run a company, but in this case, the company is the British Empire. Commission of Trade: In 1625, a special group called the Commission of Trade was created. This group was the first to focus specifically on issues related to the colonies, which were places like America where British people settled. They were like a team of experts brought in to solve problems and give advice about trade and resources in these colonies. Board of Trade: From 1696 until the American Revolution (which started in 1775), the Board of Trade took over the responsibility for managing colonial affairs. This means they were in charge of making sure everything in the colonies was running smoothly. Imagine this board as a management team that oversees all the operations in a big company, ensuring that everything is working as it should. Secretaries of State: These were government officials who worked closely with the Board of Trade. Their job was to help manage the colonies. The title of the secretary changed over time. Initially, it was the Secretary of State for the Southern Department, which was a specific area of responsibility. In 1768, this changed to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, meaning their focus was entirely on the colonies. This is similar to how a manager might change their title as their job responsibilities shift. Colonial Affairs: This term refers to all the issues and activities related to the colonies, such as trade, laws, and relationships with the local people. It’s like managing a branch of a business in a different location, where you have to consider local needs and conditions. Religious Persecution and Settlement Religious persecution was a key factor driving many Europeans to settle in the American colonies, where they hoped to find a place to practice their faiths freely. Various religious groups, facing oppression and hostility in their home countries, saw the New World as an opportunity to create new communities based on their religious beliefs. This quest for religious freedom significantly influenced the settlement patterns, social structures, and governance of the American colonies, especially in New England. Religious Persecution: This means that people were being treated badly or unfairly because of their religious beliefs. In England, the government and the Church of England did not allow some groups to practice their religion freely. This made many people feel unsafe and unhappy. The Pilgrims: The Pilgrims were a group of people who wanted to practice their religion in peace. They were part of a group called the Puritans, who wanted to make the Church of England more pure and simple. Because they faced persecution, they decided to leave England. First, they went to the Netherlands, a place where they could practice their religion more freely. However, they still wanted to create a new home where they could live according to their beliefs. Plymouth Plantation: In 1620, the Pilgrims sailed across the ocean to a place called Plymouth Plantation, which is in present-day Massachusetts. This was a big step for them because they were starting a new life in a new land where they hoped to be free from persecution. Settling New England: After the Pilgrims, many other people also left England to escape persecution, especially during the time of King Charles I. Over the next 20 years, these people settled in many areas of New England. They were looking for a place where they could live without fear of being punished for their beliefs. Province of Maryland: Another important place was Maryland. This area was founded partly to provide a safe space for Roman Catholics, who also faced persecution in England. The founders of Maryland wanted to create a community where people could practice their Catholic faith without fear. Importance of Colonization: These colonization efforts were very important because they allowed people to find new homes where they could live freely. It also led to the establishment of new communities in America, which would grow and develop over time. Major Colonial Incidents The colonial era in America was marked by numerous rebellions and conflicts, reflecting the tensions and challenges that shaped colonial life. These incidents revealed the complexities of managing diverse interests, from conflicts with Native American tribes to growing unrest against British authority and colonial elites. Notable events like Bacon's Rebellion, the Pequot War, King Philip's War, and the Stono Rebellion not only highlighted these challenges but also played a significant role in fostering a distinct American identity and increasing desires for autonomy and self-governance. Key Colonial Incidents 1. Bacon's Rebellion (1676): Bacon's Rebellion was one of the earliest and most significant uprisings in colonial America, taking place in Virginia in 1676. The rebellion was led by Nathaniel Bacon, a planter who was frustrated with Virginia's Governor William Berkeley's policies toward Native Americans. Berkeley, representing the colonial elite, favored maintaining peaceful trade and relations with Native tribes, while Bacon and many frontier settlers wanted more aggressive expansion and retaliation against Native attacks on frontier settlements. 2. Conflicts with Native American Tribes: Various conflicts with Native American tribes highlighted the complexities of colonial expansion and settlement: o Pequot War (1636–1638): The Pequot War was an early and violent conflict between New England colonists and the Pequot tribe in present-day Connecticut. The war was fueled by competition over trade and territory. The conflict culminated in the Mystic Massacre, where colonial forces, allied with Native rivals of the Pequot, set fire to a Pequot village, killing hundreds. The war resulted in the near destruction of the Pequot tribe and solidified English dominance in the region, setting a precedent for future conflicts and expansion. o King Philip's War (1675–1678): One of the most devastating conflicts between colonists and Native Americans, King Philip's War was led by Metacom, or "King Philip," the chief of the Wampanoag tribe. The war erupted due to ongoing tensions over land encroachment, cultural misunderstandings, and the colonists' attempts to assert control over Native peoples. King Philip's War was brutal, resulting in significant casualties on both sides and widespread destruction of towns and villages. The war ended with the death of Metacom and the collapse of Native resistance in southern New England, opening more land for English settlement. However, the war left deep scars and led to the enslavement or displacement of many Native survivors. 3. Stono Rebellion (1739): The Stono Rebellion was the largest slave uprising in the British colonies before the American Revolution. It took place in South Carolina in 1739, when a group of enslaved Africans, led by a man named Jemmy, seized weapons from a local store and marched south toward Spanish Florida, where they hoped to find freedom. Along the way, they burned plantations and killed white settlers, attracting more followers. The rebellion was eventually suppressed by the colonial militia, and many of the rebels were killed or captured. In response, South Carolina enacted stricter slave codes to prevent future uprisings and to control the enslaved population more tightly. The Stono Rebellion highlighted the tensions and fears surrounding the institution of slavery and contributed to the development of a distinctively American consciousness around liberty and resistance. 4. The Glorious Revolution in America (1689-1691): The Glorious Revolution in England, which saw the overthrow of King James II in 1688, had significant repercussions in the American colonies. In response, several colonies overthrew their governors appointed by James II or their representatives. In Massachusetts, the colonists arrested Governor Edmund Andros, who had ruled with an authoritarian style under the Dominion of New England, which consolidated several New England colonies under a single royal governor. In New York, Leisler's Rebellion saw Jacob Leisler seize control of the colony in the name of Protestantism, while in Maryland, Protestant colonists overthrew the Catholic proprietorship. These events reflected the growing demand for more representative government and resistance to arbitrary rule, which were becoming hallmarks of American colonial political thought. 5. Pontiac's Rebellion (1763-1766): Pontiac's Rebellion was an organized resistance by Native American tribes, led by Ottawa Chief Pontiac, against British post-war policies after the French and Indian War. Following the war, the British began restricting the movement of settlers and traders into the Ohio Valley and stopped gift-giving and trade practices that had been common under French rule. These changes, combined with colonial encroachment on Native lands, sparked a multi-tribal effort to push back against British forces. The rebellion led to the British issuing the Proclamation of 1763, which sought to limit colonial expansion west of the Appalachian Mountains to prevent further conflicts with Native Americans. However, many colonists resented the restrictions, contributing to growing dissatisfaction with British rule. path to Independence By the mid-18th century, many of the American colonies had developed robust systems of self- governance that operated with considerable autonomy from the British government. This experience with self-rule, coupled with growing resentment toward British interference and perceived injustices, ultimately led to calls for independence. The colonies began to view themselves as capable of governing independently, a view that crystallized with the American Revolution (1775–1783). Thus, colonial governance evolved from direct oversight and control by the British Crown to various forms of self-governance that reflected local needs and conditions. This gradual evolution played a crucial role in shaping the political culture and institutions of the future United States, creating a foundation for democratic governance and a commitment to representative government. REFERENCES: Contributors to Wikimedia projects. (2024). Colonial history of the United States - Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States History of the American colonies. (2024). Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/summary/American-colonies American colonies | Facts, Map, Revolution, History, & Definition. (2024). Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/American-colonies Khan Academy. (2024). khanacademy.org. https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us- history/colonial-america Colonial America: New World Settlements | HISTORY. (2024). HISTORY. https://www.history.com/topics/colonial-america Explore by Timeline: Colonial America and the Revolution (1565-1783). (2024). U.S. General Services Administration. https://www.gsa.gov/real-estate/historic-preservation/explore-historic- buildings/explore-by-timeline/colonial-america-revolution-15651783 Colonial Society and Culture | AP US History Class Notes | Fiveable. (2024). fiveable.me. https://library.fiveable.me/apush/unit-2/colonial-society-culture/study- guide/Lko98iWbbumC8ceFevkv About the USA > History > The Colonial Period. (2008). usembassy.de. https://usa.usembassy.de/history-colonial.htm URBAN AND REGIONAL GROUP 2: AQUINO, GHERICO V. Planning AUSTIN, SAMANTHA C. BRINCES, JEANS CLIFFORD CALMA, MIKEE DELFIN, JEAN PAUL EUGENIO, PHILIP GARCIA, RASHEED MIYO F. VELASCO, NICOLE FRANCESCA A. VILLAPANA, LANCE GIE YUMUL, JAY-AR BEGINNING OF US PLANNING Colonial and Early City Layouts (1600s–1700s) -Planned Grids in Early Cities (Early American settlements) Philadelphia (1682) Savannah (1733) - These early plans were based on European models and were intended to promote order, safety, and trade. However, formal city planning as we know it today was still undeveloped. PLANNED GRIDS IN EARLY CITIES Philadelphia (1682) Savannah (1733) Industrialization and Urban Growth (1800s) -By the mid-19th century, rapid industrialization led to massive urban growth, particularly in cities like New York, Chicago, and Boston. Factories, railroads, and large waves of immigration fueled urban sprawl. Public Health Reforms and Early Efforts (Mid-1800s) - The deplorable living conditions in many urban areas spurred early reform movements. Public health advocates and social reformers began pushing for improvements in housing, sanitation, and open spaces. FREDERICK LAW OLMSTED Often called Father of Landscape Architecture CENTRAL PARK IN NEW YORK CITY (1858) BEGINNING OF MODERN PLANNING Modern urban planning Urban planning became a In the late 20th century, Modern urban planning developed in response to formal discipline in the sustainable development began in the late 19th the late 19th-century early 1900s with the became a key principle in century as a response to urban reform movement. urban planning. Promoted the chaos of rapidly creation of academic This movement aimed to by the UN’s World industrializing cities. This programs. The first Commission on era saw a shift towards address the chaos of program started at the Environment and organized urban industrial cities, focusing University of Liverpool in Development in 1987, it development, considering on critical issues like 1909, followed by focuses on balancing social, environmental, and sanitation, transportation, current needs with the economic factors. Over Harvard University in and amenities. Visionaries ability of future time, urban planning 1924. This marked the sought to create balanced generations to meet theirs. evolved into a formal recognition of urban urban environments that This concept is now central discipline with both promoted both social planning as essential for to modern planning academic and practical equity and economic addressing complex efforts. aspects. growth. urban issues. Living Conditions Industrialization Growing Cities Urbanization ORIGINS FOCUS Example: BEGINNING OF Physical Layout Garden City movement Infrastructure Functional City Design MODERN PLANNING (late 19th to early PRINCIPLES 20th century) APPROACH Rationality Order TECHNOLOGY Maps Manual surveys SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT SMART CITIES AND TECHNOLOGY BEGINNING OF EQUITY AND TRANSIT-ORIENTED INCLUSION MODERN DEVELOPMENT PLANNING MIXED-USE DEVELOPMENT CULTURAL AND AESTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS BEGINNING OF MODERN PLANNING 1. Sustainable Development EXAMPLE: Modern planning for The Club of Rome and "Limits to sustainable development Growth" (1972) began to take shape in the mid-20th century, as the world started recognizing the environmental and social impacts of rapid industrialization. BEGINNING OF MODERN PLANNING 2. Smart Cities and Technology Modern planning for smart cities and technology began to take shape in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, driven by advancements in digital technology and an increasing focus on urban EXAMPLE: efficiency, sustainability, and City State of Singapore quality of life. BEGINNING OF MODERN PLANNING 3. EQUITY AND INCLUSION The concept of equity and inclusion in modern planning has evolved significantly over time, reflecting broader social, political, and economic changes. EXAMPLE: Tamboril Free Zone Park at Zona Franca de Tamboril BEGINNING OF MODERN PLANNING 4. TRANSIT-ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT TOD reflects a growing recognition of the need for sustainable, efficient, and people-friendly urban environments, aligned with goals of reducing car EXAMPLE: dependency and promoting Copenhagen's Finger Plan from 1947 livable communities. BEGINNING OF MODERN PLANNING 5. CULTURAL AND AESTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS The beginning of modern planning for cultural and aesthetic considerations can be traced back to the early 20th century, particularly with the rise of the City Beautiful Movement in the United States, and the Garden City Movement in the UK. These movements aimed to integrate aesthetics, social values, and the EXAMPLE: environment into urban planning, reflecting a Union Station in Washington, D.C., the Field shift from purely functional, industrial city Museum in Chicago, and the Boston Public design to one that also valued cultural and Library in Boston. aesthetic aspects. CONTEMPORARY PLANNING - Contemporary urban planning embodies a multi-faceted approach aimed at crafting sustainable, livable, and resilient cities. This approach integrates various disciplines, technologies, and strategies while reflecting a progressive shift from traditional planning methods. Notably, the focus on sustainability, technology, equity, and cultural considerations ensures that urban environments can adapt to the evolving needs of their populations. 1. Sustainable Development Cities are increasingly adopting green building standards such as LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design), focusing on minimizing environmental impacts through energy efficiency, sustainable materials, and water conservation. EXAMPLE: The Sustainable Development Goals The 2030 Agenda, its 17 Goals and 169 targets are a universal set of goals and targets that aim to stimulate people-centered and planet-sensitive change. 2. Smart Cities and Technology (Data-Driven Planning) The use of big data and analytics is revolutionizing urban planning. Planners can make informed decisions regarding urban development, traffic management, and public services. EXAMPLE: New Clark City - Tarlac The Philippines' first green, smart, sustainable and disaster-resilient metropolis. 3. Equity and Inclusion (Affordable Housing) Addressing housing affordability is critical for equitable urban development. Planners prioritize creating diverse housing options to ensure accessibility for all socioeconomic groups. EXAMPLE: The Asian Development Bank (ADB) Green Affordable Housing The Asian Development Bank (ADB) and Lhoopa, signed loan agreement to help deliver affordable housing for average-income earners in the Philippines 4. Transit-Oriented Development Improving public transportation systems is essential for sustainable urban mobility, reducing reliance on private vehicles, and minimizing traffic congestion. EXAMPLE: New Clark City - Tarlac The Philippines' first green, smart, sustainable and disaster-resilient metropolis. 5. Mixed-Use and Compact Development Integrated land use is a hallmark of contemporary planning, combining residential, commercial, and recreational areas within proximity to foster vibrant communities. EXAMPLE: Bonifacio Global City (BGC) - Taguig is a prime example of a well-planned, mixed-use district in Metro Manila. 6. Cultural and Aesthetic Considerations Balancing modern development with cultural preservation ensures that urban environments retain their unique character. EXAMPLE: Vigan, Ilocos Sur Vigan is a UNESCO World Heritage site known for its well-preserved Spanish colonial architecture. GARDEN CITY MOVEMENT EBENEZER HOWARD (1850-1928) Proposed by Ebenezer Howard in his 1898 book Tomorrow: A Peaceful Path to Social Reform Ebenezer Howard proposed a cluster configuration of cities using what he believed were optimum city sizes The Garden City clusterwas composed of thefollowing: ▪ A central city of 58,000 people ▪ Smaller garden citiesof 30,000 people each ▪ The said cities wouldbe linked by rails androads Letchworth, United Kingdom The first garden city, based on the ideas of Ebenezer Howard. Garden City Type: Mixed (housing association / municipality / other) Country: United Kingdom City: Letchworth Address: Broadway Gardens Years of construction: 1904 Start construction Colonel Light Gardens Adelaide, Australia Suburb in Australia's Adelaide, inspired by the garden city movement. Garden City Type: Mixed (housing association / municipality / other) Country: Australia City: Adelaide Years of construction: 1921 Start construction Marino, Dublin Dublin, Ireland Area in Dublin based on the ideas of Ebenezers Howard's Garden City. Garden City Type: Mixed (housing association / municipality / other) Country: Ireland City: Dublin Years of construction: 1923 Start construction 1926 Completion Den-En-Chōfu Tokyo, Japan Den-en-chōfu is a residential neighborhood located in southern Tokyo. Garden City Type: Mixed (housing association / municipality / other) Country: Japan City: Tokyo Years of construction: 1918 Start construction Eixample Malagrida Olot, Spain Town in the northern Catalan city of Olot. Garden City Type: Mixed (housing association / municipality / other) Country: Spain City: Olot Years of construction: 1916 Start construction 1925 Completion CITY BEAUTIFUL MOVEMENT CITY BEAUTIFUL MOVEMENT The City Beautiful movement emerged at a time in U.S. history when the country experienced rapid urbanization. Most city dwellers perceived that cities were ugly, congested, dirty, and unsafe, As cities grew, an increasingly rapid condition enhanced by an influx of immigrants at the end of the 19th century- public space was being usurped leading to increased congestion. ORIGIN: Launched at World’s Columbian Exposition (1893) CITY BEAUTIFUL MOVEMENT Often called as “ The Golden Age of Urban Design” Drew upon many ideas in the history of designing cities and enlarged upon these ideas significantly, Highly ambitious, grand, and formal designs. It sought to cure the ills of city plans before the movement. Cities were overpopulated Cities were poorly planned Cities were developed in an “ad hoc fashion” Cities became shapeless, inefficient and ugly. DANIEL HUDSON BURNHAM (1846-1912) The father of the City Beautiful Movement. "breathing space" CITY BEAUTIFUL MOVEMENT Key Features/Elements in planning of “City Beautiful Movement” Magnificent Parks Grand buildings as focal points. Wide boulevards Public gathering spaces with monuments and fountains. Network of parks and plazas. CITY BEAUTIFUL MOVEMENT Washington, D.C first city to adopt City Beautiful Movement McMillan Plan CITY BEAUTIFUL MOVEMENT World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago led by architect Daniel H. Burnham "White City" combining Neoclassical and Baroque styles with Chicago’s own cityscape. CITY BEAUTIFUL MOVEMENT Central Park in New York City -Frederick Law Olmsted CITY BEAUTIFUL MOVEMENT Burnham Park -Often called the "Mother of all Parks" in Baguio -Reflects the principles of the City Beautiful movement CITY EFFICIENT MOVEMENT Strategies to improve the flow of people, goods, and services in urban areas. It focuses on better transportation, reducing congestion, promoting public transit, cycling, walking, and using technology to enhance infrastructure. CITY EFFICIENT MOVEMENT KEY ASPECTS Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) Mixed-Use Development Pedestrian and Bicycle Infrastructure Smart City Technologies Zoning and Spatial Planning CITY EFFICIENT MOVEMENT 1. PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM HONG KONG’S MTR 2. INTEGRATED LAND USE AND TRANSIT-ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT PORTLAND, OREGON PORTLAND 3. PEDESTRIAN-FRIENDLY DESIGN NEW YORK CITY, USA CITY EFFICIENT MOVEMENT 1. PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM HONG KONG’S MTR The MTR combines various transportation modes, such as trains, buses, and ferries, into a dependable network for commuters. It also features modern amenities like smart ticketing and real-time updates, which greatly improve the user experience and promote the use of public transit. CITY EFFICIENT MOVEMENT 2. INTEGRATED LAND USE AND TRANSIT-ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT PORTLAND, OREGON PORTLAND This planning strategy minimizes reliance on cars by combining residential, commercial, and recreational spaces with convenient public transportation. The outcome is a more efficient urban environment that encourages walking, cycling, and public transit use. CITY EFFICIENT MOVEMENT 3. PEDESTRIAN-FRIENDLY DESIGN NEW YORK CITY, USA The pedestrianization of Times Square in New York City demonstrates successful urban design focused on improving the pedestrian experience. THANK YOU for Listening Tarlac State University College of Architecture and Fine Arts San Isidro Campus, Tarlac City Architectural Planning 3: PLANNING MOVEMENTS (New Towns, City Functional Movement, New Urbanism, Edge Cities, Smart Growth, and LEED) Proponents: Group 3 Cabrera, Danniellyn O. Espineda, Melissa A. Galang, Joannieh Maxine C. Isla, Jorgen Mallari, Jovana Joice D. Quilala, Erica Joy B. Reyes, Shandy Rein R. Tanglao, Leighan Heather G. Tolentino, Tricia Nicole T. Yanga, Tiffany Joy G. I. NEW TOWNS What is New Town? Are planned cities built from scratch to solve overcrowding in existing cities or to promote development in specific areas. They're carefully designed with homes, businesses, parks, and roads, aiming to create balanced, self-sufficient communities. Origin and Evolution Began with Ebenezer Howard's Garden City movement in 1898 to tackle overcrowding and balance urban-rural living. The UK formalized this after WWII with the 1946 New Towns Act, and other countries soon followed to address urban challenges. Purpose of New Town Decongestion of Major Cities - Reducing overcrowding in large cities by distributing the population and resources to surrounding areas or new towns. Creation of Balanced and Sustainable Urban Growth - Ensuring cities grow in a way that balances economic, social, and environmental needs, promoting long-term sustainability. Strategic Regional Development - Planned growth of regions by investing in infrastructure, industry, and services to boost economic opportunities and reduce regional disparities. Examples of New Town Garden City Movement Milton Keynes, UK Brasilia, Brazil Navi Mumbai, India Songdo, South Korea Canberra, Australia Key Principles of New Town Planning Self-Containment - New towns should be self-sufficient, providing jobs, housing, and services to avoid reliance on nearby cities. Balanced Population Growth - ensure that the town’s population size matches available resources, maintaining a healthy balance between people and infrastructure. Green and Blue Infrastructure - integrate parks, water bodies, and natural areas to promote sustainability, improve the environment, and offer recreational spaces. Mixed-Use Development - design areas where residential, commercial, and recreational spaces are combined to reduce travel and create vibrant communities. Public Services - provide easy access to essential services like schools, hospitals, and shops, ensuring convenience for residents. Transportation - develop effective public transport, walking, and biking routes to reduce traffic, improve accessibility, and support eco-friendly living. Community - plan spaces like town centers and parks to encourage social interaction, fostering a strong sense of community and belonging. Architectural Planning 3 2 Design and Infrastructure TRANSPORT AND MOBILITY - Discuss the importance of efficient public transport systems, walkability, and bike-friendly routes in new towns. TECHNOLOGY AND SMART CITIES - Explain how new towns incorporate cutting- edge technologies, such as IoT (Internet of Things), AI, and renewable energy solutions. HOUSING AND URBAN DENSITY - Explore the debate between low-density suburban models vs. compact high-density developments. Sustainability and Environmental Considerations This refers to planning and making decisions in a way that meets current needs without harming the environment or using up resources that future generations will need. It focuses on protecting nature and reducing pollution. Sustainable Urbanism This refers to planning and making decisions in a way that meets current needs without harming the environment or using up resources that future generations will need. It focuses on protecting nature and reducing pollution. Circular Economy In a circular economy, materials and products are reused, repaired, or recycled, rather than being thrown away. The goal is to reduce waste and keep resources in use for as long as possible, which is better for the environment. Climate-Resilient Planning This is the process of designing cities and communities in ways that can handle the challenges of climate change, such as extreme weather, rising sea levels, or heat waves. The idea is to protect people and infrastructure from climate impacts. Socio-Economic Impacts Social Equity Social equity means ensuring fair access to opportunities, resources, and rights for all people, regardless of their background, race, gender, or income. It aims to reduce inequalities in society and provide everyone with the chance to succeed. Job Creation and Economic Growth This refers to increasing the number of jobs available for people and boosting the economy. By creating more job opportunities, communities can become wealthier, and people can improve their standard of living. Cultural Identity and Community Building This involves preserving and promoting the unique traditions, values, and characteristics of different groups within a community. Strengthening cultural identity helps people feel connected to their community, which can foster unity and pride. Architectural Planning 3 3 Challenges and Criticisms Overplanning and Bureaucracy This refers to situations where too much planning or excessive regulations slow down projects. Layers of rules, approvals, and paperwork can make it harder to get things done quickly, leading to delays and inefficiency. Social Integration Social integration is the process of bringing together different groups of people in society to ensure they can live and work together peacefully. The challenge is that it can be difficult to create communities where everyone feels included and accepted, especially if there are cultural, economic, or social differences. Infrastructure Costs Building and maintaining infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, and public transportation, can be very expensive. These costs can strain government budgets and lead to higher taxes or cuts in other services, making it a major challenge for cities and countries. Environmental Trade-offs Sometimes, efforts to improve infrastructure or development come with environmental sacrifices. example, building new roads might damage natural habitats, or using renewable energy sources could have hidden environmental costs. The challenge is balancing progress with protecting the environment. Case Studies Songdo, South Korea South Korea experienced rapid urbanization and economic growth, especially from the 1960s onwards. As cities like Seoul grew, they became crowded, and the demand for new spaces and better infrastructure increased. The government recognized the need to create new cities that could handle future growth, improve quality of life, and position South Korea as a leader in technology and innovation. This led to the idea of creating a city that was planned from the ground up, using the latest advancements in urban design, technology, and sustainability. Future Trends and the Role of New Towns in Global Urbanization Post-Pandemic Urban Planning How will new towns adapt to the lessons learned from COVID-19? Consider health, safety, and social distancing in urban design. Technological Integration The rise of smart cities and the integration of AI, big data, and green technologies. Global Urbanization and Population Growth The increasing need for well-planned, sustainable new towns as cities face unprecedented population growth. Architectural Planning 3 4 II. CITY FUNCTIONAL MOVEMENT What is City Functional Movement? The concept of City Functional Movement in the historical context refers to a methodical, "scientific" approach to city management that became more prominent in 1940s. It aimed at improving urban spaces for the convenience, health, and efficiency of the growing population. The movement focused on systematically organizing cities by applying rational planning principles and data-driven decisions. Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. was a prominent figure in this movement, heavily influenced by his father, Frederick Law Olmsted, the famous landscape architect behind projects like New York's Central Park. Olmsted Jr. took a more comprehensive approach to urban planning that included not only aesthetics but also efficiency, functionality, and sustainability in the design of cities. Central Park, New York City Central Park in New York City, designed by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux, stands as a monumental achievement in landscape architecture and urban planning. Completed in 1858, it was created not only to serve as a recreational space for the rapidly growing city but also to embody ideals of beauty, accessibility, and community. 1. Historical Context of Central Park Central Park was designed amid the urbanization of the mid-19th century, as New York City experienced rapid population growth. The park was intended to provide a restorative escape from the stresses of city life by immersing visitors in a natural setting. Its establishment marked an essential response to the increasing need for green space in urban environments as development encroached upon natural areas. 2. The Design Competition and the Greensward Plan In 1857, a design competition was held to determine the layout of Central Park. The winning entry, the "Greensward Plan," was conceived by Olmsted and Vaux. This plan was noteworthy for its integration of natural and designed elements, featuring meandering pathways, rolling lawns, and picturesque water bodies, which facilitated a serene experience for park visitors. 3. Features and Layout of the Park Central Park spans 843 acres and includes diverse landscapes ranging from expansive meadows to dense woodlands and tranquil water bodies. Key features include the Great Lawn, the Ramble, and Bethesda Terrace, all of which create distinct experiences within the park. The design emphasized a harmonious relationship between natural elements and human activity, allowing for recreation and relax

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