BA History Sem III (Mughals) PDF

UNIT-1 MUGHAL EMPIRE T-1: ADVENT OF MUGHALS Who were Mughals? The Mughals were a Muslim dynasty of Turkic-Mongol origin that ruled most of northern India from the early 16th to the mid-18th century. The word Mughal derived from the...

UNIT-1 MUGHAL EMPIRE T-1: ADVENT OF MUGHALS Who were Mughals? The Mughals were a Muslim dynasty of Turkic-Mongol origin that ruled most of northern India from the early 16th to the mid-18th century. The word Mughal derived from their ancestors Mongols. Mughals were originally from central Asia (Modern Uzbekistan) around Ferghana valley. Mughals are related to Amir Timur from their father side and Mongols from their mother side. They called themselves Timurids, and adopted the title mirza. POLITICAL CONDITIONS OF CENTRAL ASIA DURING 15TH CENTURY The fifteenth century was the age of change and empire building in Central and West Asia. From the ruins of Mongol and Timurid empires, three great empires were in the making again. ▪ Uzbeks & Timurids in central Asia. ▪ Safavid dynasty in Iran. ▪ Ottoman Turks in Turkey. Ferghana valley in modern Uzbekistan was under descendants of Amir Timur. Umar Sheikh Mirza, was the Emir(leader) of Ferghana. Ferghana valley along with city Samarqand and Bokhara were important trade centre therefore centre of all political conflicts. In 1494, Umar Sheikh Mirza the Emir of Ferghana died unexpectedly, and 11-year-old Babur ascended to the throne of Ferghana, his two immediate political rivals were Ahmed mirza(uncle) of Samarqand and Uzbek Chief, Shaibani Khan. Babur wanted to capture Samarqand due to its economical as well as social importance, he made several attempts to acquire Samarqand. Although he was able to capture it but again lost it to Uzbek Chief, Shaibani Khan. This forced Babur to move towards Kabul which he conquered in 1504. Babur made two more attempts to recapture Samarqand and Ferghana from Uzbeks with the help of Shah Ismail, the Shah of Iran but unfortunately Uzbek’s have very strong hold till the time and Babur retreated towards Kabul. These developments forced Babur to look towards India. BABUR’S CONQUEST OF INDIA Babur's invasion of India was motivated by a combination of factors Timur's Legacy: Babur was a descendant of Timur, the great conqueror who had previously invaded India. Babur aimed to reclaim the territories his ancestor had once conquered. Weak Delhi Sultanate: The Delhi Sultanate, ruled by Ibrahim Lodi, was facing internal strife and instability. This presented an opportunity for Babur to exploit the situation. Limited Resources in Kabul: Babur's homeland, Kabul, was not a wealthy region. He sought to expand his territory and resources to support his growing empire. India, with its fertile lands and prosperous cities, was a tempting target for economic gain. Invitations from Indian Rulers: Daulat Khan Lodi, A disgruntled noble of the Delhi Sultanate, invited Babur to invade India to overthrow Ibrahim Lodi.  POLITICAL CONDITION OF INDIA DURING BABUR’S INVASION The political situation in north India was suitable for Babur’s entry into India as it was chaotic. In the beginning of the sixteenth century, India was a confederacy of a number of small independent states. ▪ Lodhis in Delhi, Agra & northwest. ▪ Rana Sanga in Rajputana states ▪ Muhammad shah of Gujrat. ▪ Vijayanagar and Bahmani in south & deccan. Daulat Khan Lodi, who was governor of Punjab invite Babur to India and suggested that he should displace Ibrahim Lodi since he was a tyrant. Between 1519 and 1524 he invaded Peshawar, Sialkot, Lahore & dipalpur. Finally, in 1525, after multiple attempts, Babur became the master of Punjab. T-2: GROWTH OF MUGHAL EMPIRE ▪ The growth of Mughal empire was initiated after the battel of Panipat between Mughals and Lodhi’s. The victory in the First Battle of Panipat effectively ended the Lodi Kingdom in India. This triumph laid the groundwork for the establishment of the Mughal Empire in India. First Battle of Panipat (21st April 1526) ▪ In The First Battle of Panipat Ibrahim Lodi and Babur’s forces finally clashed. Ibrahim’s army, with an estimated strength of 1,00,000 soldiers, faced Babur’s smaller force of 12,000 warriors. ▪ Babur employed distinctive strategies when confronting opponents on the battlefield. Significantly, the use of cannons in 16th-century warfare played a crucial role, skilfully deployed by Babur in the initial conflict at Panipat. ▪ Babur’s Tactics of Tulughma and Araba: Tulughma involved dividing the entire army into various units, including the Left, Right, and the Centre. allowed a small army to surround the enemy from all sides. The Centre forward division was equipped with carts (Araba) placed in rows facing the enemy and tied together with animal hide ropes. ▪ He used gun powder in artillery to his great advantage. Babur had two Ottoman master-gunners, Ustad Ali and Mustafa, in his ranks to operate the artillery attacks. ▪ This battle broke the back of Lodi power, and brought under Babur’s control the entire area up to Delhi and Agra. The treasures stored by Ibrahim Lodi at Agra relieved Babur from his financial difficulties. After winning the first battle of Panipat Babur decided to stay in India and established his empire. So he crowned himself as Badshah on 27th April 1526 Babur’s decision to stay in India invited the hostility of Rana Sanga who began his preparations for a showdown with Babur. Rana Sanga had domination over Eastern Rajasthan, Malwa. Thus, the establishment of an empire in the Indo-Gangetic Valley by Babur was a threat to Rana Sanga. BABUR’S MILLITARY CONQUESTS & EXPANSIONS Battle of Khanwa (16TH MARCH 1527) Rana Sanga organised a union of Rajput princes to fight the invader after he realised Babur had decided to stay. On March 16, 1527, Babur and Rana Sanga engaged in the Battle at Khanwa. Rana Sanga wished to depose Babur because he saw him as an outsider in charge of India. At the Battle of Khanwa at Fatehpur Sikri in AD 1527, Babur and Rana Sanga met. Babur's superior weaponry and strategy allowed him to beat Rana Sanga. Because it firmly established the Mughal empire in India, the Battle of Khanwa was a more decisive Battle than the Battle of Panipat. In this battle Babur adopted the title of ghazi. Battle of Chanderi (1528)  The Battle of Chanderi, fought in January 1528, was a pivotal clash between the Mughal forces under Emperor Babur and the Rajput army led by Medini Rai, the ruler of Malwa. The battle took place on January 29, 1528. Babur's army, equipped with superior artillery and employing innovative tactics, successfully breached the defences of Chanderi Fort. The battle resulted in a decisive victory for Babur. Medini Rai was killed in the fighting, and his army was routed. The fall of Chanderi marked the end of the independent Malwa Sultanate and paved the way for the expansion of the Mughal Empire. After the battle of Chanderi, Babur’s authority was not challenged by the Rajputs. Battle of Ghaghara (1529) The Battle of Ghaghara, fought on May 6, 1529, was a pivotal battle in the consolidation of the Mughal Empire in India. Fought between Babur and the combined forces of the Afghan chiefs and the Sultan of Bengal. led by Sultan Mahmud Lodi and Sultan Nusrat Shah. The victory solidified Babur's control over the newly established Mughal territory, extending his dominion and confirming the Mughal presence in India. BABUR’S DEATH Babur was not given enough time to live to see the benefits of his conquests. In AD 1530, four years following the Battle of Panipat, Babur passed away. On December 26, 1530, Babur died in Agra at 47. His eldest son, Humayun, succeeded him. His lifeless remains were initially interred in Agra, but, following his intentions, they were later transported to Kabul and reinterred in Bagh-e Babur sometime between 1539 and 1544. BABUR’S IMPORTANCE Babur was a fantastic poet and writer, in addition to being renowned as the man who established the Mughal Empire. His biography, the Babur Nama in Persian and the Tuzki-Baburi in the Turki, provide details about his life, circumstances, and way of life during the period. He had the power to win his people's affection and respect. Babur had 4 son and one daughter. After his death his empire was divided into 4 parts among his 4 sons. Humayun= Delhi & Agra Askari= Rohilkhand U.P Hindal= Mewat Haryana Kamran= Panjab, Sindh & Kabul. HUMAYUN (1530-1540 & 1555-1556) After the sudden demise of Babur, he was succeeded by his oldest son Humayun. Due to untimely death of Babur, the administration had not yet been consolidated. Babur spent almost his time in wars and could not take suitable steps to organize the administration of the territories he conquered. ❖ CHALLENGES BEFORE HUMAYUN The Mughal army was a heterogeneous body of several races – Chagatai’s, Uzbeks, Mughals, Persian, Afghans and Hindustanis, etc. Such an army could be kept under control and disciplined only under the leadership of a capable, dashing and inspiring commander like Babur. Humayun was too weak for this purpose. After getting enormous wealth from the royal treasuries of Delhi and Ajmer, Babur distributed it so lavishly among his soldiers and nobles that very little were left for Humayun to conduct the affairs of his administration. In due course, these nobles became very powerful and they posed a great threat to the stability of the Mughal Empire. Even after the Battle of Ghaghara, the Afghans had not been subdued, and were nursing the hope of expelling the Mughals. The Afghans who were ruling Delhi a few years back still had ambition to capture power again. Afghans could always unite under a capable leader and pose a challenge. ❖ MAJOR BATTELS FOUGHT BY HUMAYUN After the Battle of Ghaghara, the Afghans had not been subdued, and they hope of expelling the Mughals. Bahadur Shah, the ruler of Gujarat, was also an Afghan. it was Bahadur Shah in the West and Sher Shah in the East which hemmed in Humayun and he fought many battles with them. 1531: Battel of Kalinjar against Chandel ruler Pratap Rudra dev. 1532: Battle of Douraha against the combine army of Md. Lodhi & Sher shah Suri. 1535: Battle of Gujrat & Malwa against Bahadur Shah of Gujrat. BABUR VS SHER SHAH SURI During Humayun’s Malwa Campaign, Sher Shah had further strengthened his position and became unquestioned master of Bihar with widespread support of the Afghans. Soon after, he acquired Bengal also. Humayun marched to Bengal to recapture the lost territories but when he reached there Sher shah returned to Chunar fort with Bengal’s treasury. Humayun chased him and they met at Chausa village near Bihar with their armies. BATTLE OF CHAUSA (26TH JUNE 1539) The battle was fought in a strategically advantageous location for Sher Shah Suri. He employed tactics that exploited the terrain and the weather conditions. The Mughal army, under Humayun's command, was caught off guard and suffered a significant defeat. Humayun himself barely escaped with his life, fleeing the battlefield. Swimming across the river ganga with the help of a water carrier. His brother Hindal rebelled against him and Humayun was cut off from all supplies and reinforcements. BATTLE OF KANNAUJ (17th MAY 1540) The Battle of Kannauj, also known as the Battle of Bilgram, The battle took place on May 17, 1540, near the city of Kannauj in present-day Uttar Pradesh, Sher Shah Suri employed tactics like ambush and strategic positioning to outmanoeuvre Humayun's forces. Humayun's army was plagued by internal divisions and poor leadership. His decision to camp in a low-lying area proved to be a fatal mistake. Sher Shah Suri's forces launched a surprise attack, overwhelming Humayun's unprepared army. Humayun was forced to flee the battlefield again. This battle decided the issue between Sher Shah and the Mughals. Sher Shah became the new ruler of North India and ordered Humayun to leave India. ❖ HUMAYUN’S LATER LIFE Humayun was forced to spend 15 years out of India. He wandered in Sindh and its neighbouring regions for the next two and a half years, hatching various schemes to regain his kingdom. But neither the ruler of Sindh or Marwar nor his brothers were willing to help him. Ultimately, Humayun took shelter at the court of Iranian King of Safavid Dynasty, and with his help recaptured Qandahar and Kabul from Kamran in 1545. After Sher Shah’s death, he seized every opportunity to come to power. In 1555, following the breakup of the Sur empire, he was able to recover Delhi. With the help of bairam khan. Bairam Khan led successful campaigns in the Punjab, facilitating Humayun’s return to Delhi. He recaptures his throne of Delhi and restore the power and prestige of the Mughals. However, he did not live long to enjoy the fruits of victory and died from a fall from the first floor of the library building named shermandal in his fort in Deenpanah (Delhi) in 1556. After his death his son Akabar become king at the age of 14. ❖ HUMAYU’S ESTIMATION Military and Administrative Reforms: Humayun introduced Persian governance methods, improving revenue collection and fostering Persian arts. Architecture: Built a new city in Delhi named Dinapanah. Constructed the Jamali mosque and mosque of Isa Khan in Delhi. His wife, Hamida Benu Begum, started the construction of Humayun’s Tomb. Mughal Painting: Founding Mughal Painting: While in Persia, Humayun laid the foundation of Mughal painting, and brought notable painters Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdal Samad to India. He supported Persian-style miniature painting and architecture, leaving a lasting legacy in Mughal culture. He founded the Nigaar Khana (painting workshop), which was also a part of his library. He started the project of illustrating Hamza Nama, which was continued by Akbar. Literature: His sister Gul Badan Begum authored “Humayun-Nama.” T-3: EXPANSION AND CONSOLIDATION OF MUGHAL EMPIRE After the death of Humayun, the 13-year-old Akbar become the ruler of Mughal empire. In his 49 year’s reign Akbar expand and consolidate the Mughal empire. JALALUDDIN MD. AKBAR (1556-1605) Akbar was born on 15th October 1542 at Amarkot (Sindh) in the palace of Rana virshal who give refuge to Humayun. Akbar was captured by his uncle Kamran, although he was treated well. The reunion with his father was made possible only when Humayun captured Qandahar from Kamran. After the death of Humayun,13-year-old Akbar was enthroned at Kalanaur by Bairam Khan, the Military general of Humayun and regent of Akbar in 1556. ❖ Challenges before Akbar: When Akbar ascended to the throne, his empire barely included areas of Punjab and Delhi. Even this situation was under constant threat as Hemu, the military general of Adil Shah Suri (a nephew of Sher Shah Suri) had conquered Agra and Delhi by defeating the Mughal forces. It is said that by that time he had not lost a single of 22 battles he had fought and was bestowed the ancient title of Vikramaditya by Adil Shah who had also made him Wazir. Kabul had been attacked and besieged by the Badakhshan rulers of Afghanistan. Sikander Shah Suri, defeated by Humayun, was waiting for an opportunity to regain his empire and was a constant threat. ❖ 2ND BATTLE OF PANIPAT (5TH NOVEMBER 1556) The Second Battle of Panipat, was a pivotal clash between the forces of the Mughal Emperor Akbar and Hemu. Bairam Khan displayed his superior military statesmanship. Akbar's generals, Khan Zaman and Bairam Khan, seized the opportunity and launched a decisive attack. Hemu's army was routed, and he was captured and subsequently beheaded. The victory re-established the supremacy of Mughals over the throne of Delhi. After a month long stay in Delhi, Akbar sought to vanquish all the rival claimants to the throne of Delhi. he along with Bairam Khan marched towards Sirhind to complete the military operation against Sikander Shah Suri and in due course made him surrender at the fort of Mankot, Kashmir in 1557. Sikander Shah Suri was driven out to Bihar where he died two years later. Adil Shah Suri had died in a battle against Bengal kingdom in 1557, and other claimants to the Delhi throne had withdrawn. Thus, Akbar was left free to consolidate his empire, undisturbed by the rival claims against his sovereignty. During the first few years of Akbar’s reign (c. 1556 – 1560 CE), Bairam Khan acted as his regent. Bairam Khan was Humayun’s confidante and gained the title of Khan-i-Khanna. Bairam Khan emerged as the most powerful noble and started appointing his supporters to important positions neglecting the old nobles. This caused resentment among other nobles who managed to influence Akbar as well. The growing arrogance of Bairam Khan also aggravated the problem. Akbar removed him and gave him the option of serving at the court or anywhere outside it or retiring to Mecca. Bairam Khan chose Mecca but on his way was killed by an Afghan at Patan near Ahmedabad. Bairam’s wife and his young child were brought to Akbar at Agra. Akbar married his widow and brought up Bairam’s child as his own who later became famous as Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanna, a noted Hindi poet and an influential noble. From 1561-67, Akbar also had to face other forces of rebellion, the major ones being: o Maham Anga and Adham Khan: Maham Anga was Akbar’s foster mother who had a role in dismissing Bairam Khan. Her son Adham Anga claimed sovereignty while he was sent to an expedition on Malwa. o Uzbeks: The Uzbek section of the nobility commanded great influence in the region of eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Malwa. they became arrogant and started defying the authority of Akbar by rebelling against the crown. He defeated and killed the Uzbeks leader in 1567, thus bringing their rebellion to an end. o Mirzas: The Mirzas who were Timurids and thus related to Akbar by marriage, controlled the area of Western Uttar Pradesh from where they revolted against the Emperor. Akbar defeated them and made them flee to Malwa and then to Gujarat. o Mirza Hakim: He was Akbar’s half-brother who had captured Kabul and Lahore and the Uzbeks had declared him as their ruler. Akbar marched to Lahore in 1581 and forced him to retreat. All these rebellions used up the time and resources of the empire, but they turned Akbar into a seasoned military general and diplomat, the qualities that he would make the most use of in his later endeavours. Also, most of the rebellious nobles who dreamt of an independent state for themselves were cowed down. ❖ Expansion of Empire (1560-76 AD) Malwa (1562): Akbar's forces captured Malwa, defeating the last sultan of the region, Baz Bahadur. Gondwana (1564): Gond queen Rani Durgavati resisted Mughal expansion but was defeated. Mewar (1568): Captured Chittor after the retreat of Rana Udai Singh. With the fall of Chittor, several Rajput states, such as Ranthambore and Jodhpur, also surrendered. Gujarat (1573): From Muzaffar Shah, later Gujarat became a launch pad for the annexation of Deccan. Battle of Haldighati (1576): Akbar secured a decisive win in the Battle of Haldighati where Maharana Pratap suffered severe defeat at the hands of the Mughal army under Man Singh. This victory resulted in the acceptance of Akbar’s suzerainty by most leading Rajput rulers. Annexation of Bihar and Bengal(1576): Defeated Daud Khan, the Afghan ruler of Bihar and Bengal subsequently annexing both provinces to the Mughal empire in 1576. North and North West: Defeated Mirza Hakim of Kabul. His subsequent conquests of Kashmir in 1586 and Sindh in 1591 facilitated further consolidation in the northwest. Deccan region: In 1591, occupied the Khandesh region. By 1596, Berar was acquired from Chand Bibi, the regent of Ahmednagar. By 1600, parts of Ahmednagar were under Mughal control. ❖ Rajput Policy of Akbar: Akbar’s Rajput policy was a strategic approach to win over the powerful Rajput clans and integrate them into the Mughal Empire. It was a combination of diplomacy, marriage alliances, and military might. Key features of Akbar's Rajput policy:  Diplomacy and Negotiations: Akbar preferred peaceful negotiations and alliances over outright warfare. He offered generous terms to Rajput rulers, recognizing their autonomy and allowing them to retain their titles and territories. Marriage Alliances: Akbar married Rajput princesses to strengthen ties with Rajput clans and legitimize his rule. These marriages symbolized unity and cooperation between the Mughals and Rajputs. Recruitment of Rajputs: Akbar recruited Rajputs into his army and administration, giving them high positions of power and responsibility. This not only strengthened the Mughal military but also integrated Rajputs into the imperial structure. Religious Tolerance: Akbar promoted a policy of religious tolerance, which appealed to the Hindu Rajputs. He abolished the jizya tax on non-Muslims and encouraged interfaith dialogue. REVENEW SYSTEM INTRODUCED BY AKBAR Akbar adopted the revenue system of Sher Shah Suri under which the cultivated area was measured and based on the productivity of the land, crop wise prices were decided. this system had two major problems. Fixing of prices often led to delays causing hardships to the peasants. And peasants had to part more of their produce as tax. Major revenue assessment systems introduced by Akbar: 1: Zabti system: This was a system of measurement of land and the assessment of revenue was based upon the productivity of the land and local prices. 2: Dahshala system: It was an advanced modification of the zabti system. In this, the revenue was decided on the basis of the average produce of different crops as well as the average prices prevailing over the last ten years. One- third of the average produce was state’s share. 3: Batai or Ghalia Bakshi: Under this system, the produce was divided between the state and the peasants in fixed proportion. The peasants were given a choice to pay either in cash or kind, though cash was preferred. Although the system was a fair one, it required honest officials to implement it. 4: Nasaq: It was also known as kankut or estimation. Under it, a rough estimate of the revenue to be paid by the peasant was calculated based on his past payments. For assessment of revenue, the land was classified on the basis of continuity of cultivation. ▪ Polaj: The land which remained under cultivation almost every year. ▪ Parati: Fallow land, parati land paid at the full rate (polaj) when it was cultivated. ▪ Chachar: Land which had been fallow for 2-3 years. ▪ Banjar: Land which had been fallow for more than 3 years. Akbar had directed the Amils to extend loans (taccavi) to the peasants in times of need and encourage them to sow high quality seeds. Mansabdari System Consolidation of Empire to such stretches was not possible without an organised nobility and a robust army unit. Akbar achieved both these objectives through Mansabdari System. This was a system unique to the Mughal administration. Under this, every officer was assigned a rank (mansab), the lowest being 10 and highest being 5000 for nobles. Princes of the blood received higher mansabs. Remarkably, the highest rank a noble could attain was raised from 5000 to 7000 towards the end of Akbar’s rule. Two senior nobles of the Akbar rule, Mirza Aziz Koka and Raja Man Singh were accorded with the rank of 7000 each. The mansabs were divided into two: ▪ Zat: It was the personal rank and the status and salary of the officer was fixed according to it. ▪ Sawar: This indicated the number of cavalrymen (sawars) a mansabdar was required to maintain. There were three categories within the mansab: ▪ The officer who maintained as many sawars as his zat rank. ▪ The officer who maintained half or more sawars than his zat rank. ▪ The officer who maintained less than half sawars than his zat rank.  Every mansabdar had to bring his contingent for inspection regularly. Every sawar was identified based on his descriptive roll (chehra) while every horse was branded with imperial marks (dagh system). For every ten sawars, mansabdars had to maintain twenty horses. This was called the 10-20 rule. The salary to the mansabdars were paid by assigning them jagirs, which assigned the land revenue from an area to the mansabdar. This was not a hereditary system, rather only a mode of payment. Out of this salary, the mansabdar had to pay the soldiers and also maintain a certain number of horses and elephants. Only the best quality horses were retained in the army. The system was based on merit and an officer who was generally appointed at lower mansab could rise up in hierarchy based on his performance. Similarly, an officer can me demoted in rank as a mark of punishment. Also, Akbar encouraged mixed contingents of all nobles Mughal, Pathan Hindustani, Rajputs. This discouraged the forces of parochialism and tribalism. In addition to cavalrymen, bowmen, musketeers (bandukchi), sappers and miners were also recruited in the contingents. The Jagirdari System Jagirdari system was assigning revenue of a particular territory to the nobles for their services to the state. It was a modified version of Iqta of the Delhi Sultanate and was an integral part of the mansabdari system. ▪ The office of the central Diwan would identify parganas the sum total of whose jama was equal to the salary claim of the mansabdar. If the recorded jama was greater than the salary claim, the mansabdar was asked to deposit the extra with the central treasury. However, if the jama was less than the salary claim the remaining was paid from the treasury. Classification of jagirs: ▪ Tankha Jagirs – given in lieu of salaries and were transferable. ▪ Watan Jagirs – were hereditary and non-transferable. It was given to zamindars or rajas in their local dominion. When a zamindar was appointed as mansabdar, he was given tankha jagir in addition to his watan jagir if the salary of his rank was more than his income from watan jagir. ▪ Mashrut Jagirs – jagirs assigned on certain conditions. ▪ Altamgha Jagirs – assigned to Muslim nobles in their family towns or place of birth. Zamindars had hereditary rights over the produce of the land and had a direct share of 10-25 % in the peasants’ produce. He assisted the state in the collection of the revenue and also rendered military services to the state at times of need. The zamindar was not the owner of all the lands comprising his zamindari. The peasants who actually cultivated the land could not be dispossessed as long as they paid the land revenue. Both the zamindars and peasants had their own hereditary rights over the land. Political Administration Central Administration: Akbar organised the Central administration based on the principles of separation of power and of checks and balances. Some of the important functionaries in this were: ▪ Wazir: He was the head of the revenue department and was responsible for all income and expenditures of the Empire. He was the principal link between the ruler and the administration. He no longer enjoyed the position of principal advisor to the Emperor and many nobles held mansabs higher than his. ▪ Mir Bakshi: He was the head of the military department and was also considered the head of the nobility. It was he who recommended officers for various mansabs, but the wazir was responsible for assigning the jagir to the mansabdar , thus maintaining checks and balances. Mir Bakshi was also in charge of the intelligence and information agencies of the empire. Several Intelligence Officers (barids) and news reporters (waqia-navis) posted throughout the country reported to him. ▪ Mir Saman: He was in charge of imperial household and thus ensured provisions of various items required by the inmates of the harem or the female apartments. Several of these items were manufactured in royal workshops or karkhanas. ▪ Chief Qazi: He headed the judicial department ▪ Chief Sadr: He looked after the charitable and religious endowments. Apart from these ministers, Akbar himself was very much accessible to the common people. He held Diwan-i-Aam in which he heard the grievances of the people. Private consultation with ministers were held in a chamber that came to be known as Diwan-i-Khas  Provincial Administration: The Empire was divided into 12 provinces in 1580 and each province was headed by a Governor (Subedaar). Other officials included a diwan, a bakshi, a sadr, a qazi and a waqia navis. The principles of checks and balances was maintained in provincial administration too. Local Administration: Subas were divided into Sarkars (equivalent to district) which were further subdivided into Parganas (equivalent to tehsil). Chief Officers of a Sarkar were Fauzdar: He was responsible for maintenance of law and order. Amalguzar: He was responsible for assessment and collection of land revenue. He was required to exercise a general supervision over all land holdings for uniform assessment and collection of land revenues. Revenue Administration: For revenue distribution, the territories of the empire were divided into three: ▪ Jagir: Revenue was allotted to nobles and royal family members ▪ Khalisa: Revenue was sent directly to the royal exchequer ▪ Inam: Revenue was allotted to religious men irrespective of their faith. Half of this land consisted of cultivable wasteland so that the inam holders were incentivised to encourage the extension of agriculture. Religious policy under Akbar ▪ Religious tolerance : Akbar was tolerant to all religions. In 1564, he abolished the Zaziya tax on non-muslims to bring equality. ▪ Ibadat Khana : 'Ibadat Khana' (House of Worship) was established at Fatehpur Sikri, where scholars from various religious backgrounds engaged in intellectual debates and discussions. ▪ Din-i Ilahi : It was a religious doctrine initiated by Akbar to create a universal religion that incorporated elements from various existing faiths prevalent in the Indian subcontinent at the time. ▪ Policy of Sulh-i-kul : Akbar introduced a principle of governance known as policy of Sulh-i-kul which translates into "peace with all." It aimed to create a peaceful and inclusive society by respecting diverse religious beliefs and practices. Art and Architecture under the rule of Akbar Monuments o Fatehpur Sikri : The city of Fatehpur Sikri was built by Akbar near Agra. Notable structures at Fatehpur Sikri include the Buland Darwaza, Khankah, Jama Masjid, and the Panch Mahal. White marble was used in making Buland Darwaza and Khankah at Fatehpur Sikri. o Tomb of Akbar : It was a mausoleum built by Akbar in Sikandra near Agra. It reflects a blend of Persian, Hindu, and Islamic styles. o Agra fort : The Agra fort, built by Babur was extensively renovated and expanded by Akbar. He built Jahangir mahal at Agra fort. Paintings o Mughal miniature paintings under Akbar's patronage exhibited a shift towards naturalism and realism, with artists depicting landscapes, animals, and botanical elements with greater attention to detail. o Paintings under Akbar covered a wide range of themes and subjects, including court scenes, religious narratives, historical events, hunting expeditions etc. Literature under the rule of Akbar Akbar Nama: It is the autobiography of Akbar written by Abu'l-Fazl in Persian. provides a comprehensive overview of Akbar's life, reign, and the socio-political landscape of the Mughal Empire. Ain-i-Akbari: It was also written in Persian by Abu'l-Fazl. It is a detailed administrative and statistical survey of the Mughal Empire under the rule of Akbar. Hamza Nama: It was commissioned by Akbar, depicting the adventures of Amir Hamza, an epic hero of Persian literature. It consisted of 1200 paintings. Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri: It was written by Emperor Jahangir. It provides insights into his life, his relationship with Akbar and his own experiences as a ruler Razmnama: It is a Persian translation of the Hindu epic Mahabharata commissioned by Akbar. Translation of Yogavashishtha: During the reign of Emperor Akbar, the Yogavashishtha, a profound philosophical text attributed to the sage Valmiki, was translated into Persian by Nizamuddin Panipati. It contains dialogues between the sage Vasishta and his disciple Rama