Engine Training Supplements Modules 1, 7, 13 PDF

"Engine Training Supplements" Modules 1, 7, 13  Rev. 4/4/19 Emergency Vehicle Inspection, Preparation, And Driving Techniques INTRODUCTION The intent of this portion of...

"Engine Training Supplements" Modules 1, 7, 13  Rev. 4/4/19 Emergency Vehicle Inspection, Preparation, And Driving Techniques INTRODUCTION The intent of this portion of the manual is to provide the candidate with the information needed to safely and efficiently operate emergency apparatus. This section includes but is not limited to vehicle knowledge and inspection, general operation and safety features of the vehicle, and proper driving techniques in normal as well as emergency operations. The candidate must be completely knowledgeable in all aspects of the vehicle they intend to operate. It is important the candidate is able to demonstrate safe driving habits and is fully knowledgeable of the safety features inherent to the vehicle. The candidate shall be able to identify the various components of the vehicle and explain their use. The candidate will be able to identify any defects, make minor repairs, and understand when the vehicle is to be placed out of service due to safety reasons or major defects. In turn the candidate will be able to complete the necessary documentation required by the Department. OBJECTIVES Upon completing this module of the Driver Training Manual, the candidate will be able to correctly identify, maintain, evaluate, adjust, and operate an emergency vehicle. This will involve: being able to identify major components of an emergency vehicle and being able to prepare the vehicle for an emergency response. These operations will include - preventive maintenance, pre-response preparation, safety checks and adjustment. The candidate will know, understand, and successfully demonstrate safe and correct handling of the vehicle in routine, emergency, and dangerous driving situations. MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 1 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 VEHICLE INSPECTION AND DRIVING PREPARATION Major Motor Vehicle Components There are many motor vehicle components to be discussed when describing any motor vehicle and some are specifically associated with emergency vehicles. The following is a list of components covered in this section: Vehicle characteristics – height, weight, length, and width Motor / engine components Braking systems: drum, disc, air, ABS, and engine retarders Exhaust systems Driveline Steering system Electrical system Suspension Wheels and tires VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS The characteristic of an emergency vehicle affects the impact on the physical forces of the vehicle. The height, weight, length, and width of the vehicle are those items that are going to affect to the action and reaction of the vehicle while it is in motion. These items limit the direction of travel of the vehicle due to weight limitations (bridges), height constraints (overpasses), and width restrictions (tunnels). Height: It is important to know the overall height of the vehicle including all lights and other equipment mounted on the top of the vehicle. The operator should be able to recognize not only structural overhangs but also other potential problems, for example tree limbs, power and phone lines, and any other low hanging objects. It is also important to understand the vehicle height plays a roll in how the vehicle is going to handle in terms of braking and turning. The taller the vehicle is the higher the center of gravity. This is important when making turns. Because the center of gravity is higher, the potential for rollover is higher if the vehicle is exceeding a safe turning speed. This higher center of gravity changes the braking on the vehicle as well. Weight: The gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) is the maximum operating weight specified by the vehicle manufacturer including the vehicle itself, fluids, accessories, passengers, and cargo. The GVWR is vital to know because of posted weight limits on bridges, overpasses, roadways, and parking areas. All publicly maintained roads have a safety factor designed into the road bed or supporting structures, however privately maintained facilities are unpredictable. Where a weight limit is posted on a public roadway it can be assumed that the actual designed weight limit is higher. Before entering an area with weight limit restrictions, consider the GVWR of your apparatus compared to the weight limit, the apparent condition of the roadway or bridge, and whether you will be simply passing across the surface or parking on it. When MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 2 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 apparatus weight exceeds posted limits, consider another route. Knowledge of territory is key to avoiding these situations. As with height, the weight of the vehicle influences vehicle handling. The weight of the vehicle has a direct impact on the braking system. The weight distribution between the front and rear axle must be appropriately distributed. The vehicle should have approximately 1/3 the weight over the front axle and 2/3 of the weight over the rear axle. Additionally the weight should be distributed evenly from side to side. Personnel, equipment, and accessories must be placed on the apparatus in a way that avoids overloading components of the vehicle. When weight is distributed correctly the braking, suspension, and steering systems will work as designed. Another term to be familiar with is “curb weight”. The curb weight of a vehicle is the weight of the vehicle with all of the standard equipment and amenities, but without any passengers, cargo or any other separately loaded items in it. For fire apparatus, this is essentially the weight of the vehicle when it is brand new and leaving the manufacturing plant. Length: The length of the vehicle is important to know in terms of turning radius (wheel base contingent) and angle of approach and angle of departure. It is safe to assume that the longer the vehicle the wider the turning radius must be. The angle of approach and departure are important when moving across hills. These are the smallest angles made between the road surface and a line drawn from the point of ground contact and either the front or rear of the tire to any projection of the apparatus. This is important so that the front or rear bumpers or any object of the undercarriage of the vehicle does not come into Angle of Approach and Departure contact with the road surface. Width: The width of the vehicle comes into play when driving into diminished clearance environments. It is important that the width of the vehicle is the overall width that includes mirrors and any piece of equipment mounted to the exterior of the vehicle. Public roadways have lanes varying from 9 to 12 feet wide. MOTOR/ENGINE COMPONENTS There are two types of engines, gasoline and diesel. Their components are very similar in nature. The primary concern to the operator is the type of fuel used by the engine. Care should be taken to ensure the proper fuel is used. The following is a list of the basic components in the motor compartment of the vehicle. Engine Block: The engine block is where the pistons perform the work to create the motion of the vehicle. The block becomes extremely hot during the operation of the vehicle. Oil and antifreeze pass through the block during its operation. Radiator: The radiator contains the fluid used to keep the engine block from overheating. The cooling system is a closed system working under a vacuum. ** NOTE ** The fluid in this system becomes extremely hot and should not be handled until cooled. MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 3 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 Battery(s): The batteries are the start of the electrical system. They are used in starting the vehicle and maintain electrical components during the operation of the vehicle. The standard starting circuit contains two 12-volt batteries wired in parallel. On some vehicles there is a selector switch to opt for either or both batteries. The switch indicates which battery is being charged. It is important to note not to turn off the battery switch while the engine is running. This will cause damage to the alternator and electrical system. If the batteries need to be charged, only charge one at a time, and not both, on the selector switch. Charging both could cause one battery to receive an excessive charge, causing the contents to boil, resulting in battery damage or destruction. ** NOTE ** The battery (s) contain acid which will harm you if you come in contact with it. Power Steering Pump: The power steering pump maintains the fluid used to assist in steering the vehicle. The fluid in this system can be checked either while the engine is cold or hot. There are differentiating indicator marks on the dipstick for this purpose. Brake Master Cylinder: This unit contains the fluid used to operate hydraulic braking systems. ** NOTE ** This is not present with air brake systems. Fan/Accessory Belts: These belts are used to turn the cooling fan for the radiator and provide a means of recharging the batteries through the alternator. BRAKING SYSTEMS A vehicle’s braking system converts inputs from the brake pedal or parking brake controls in the cab to the friction devices (brakes) located at each vehicle wheel. Systems on MCFRS apparatus either use liquid or air to create the forces to engage the friction devices. Liquid systems are known as hydraulic. There are generally two types of braking devices that can be on the vehicle, drum and/or disc brakes. Drum brakes have drums located on each end of the vehicle’s axles. The wheels are bolted to the drums and the braking mechanism is inside the drum. To stop, the brake shoes and linings are pushed against the inside of the drum. This causes friction, which slows the vehicle (and creates heat). The heat a drum can take without damage depends on how hard and how long the brakes are used. Too much heat can make the brakes stop working. Hydraulic Drum Brake Pneumatic Drum Brake MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 4 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 Disc brakes are comprised of a rotor and a caliper that squeeze the brake pads to stop or slow the vehicle. The rotor is the disc and is attached to the wheel axle. When the brake pedal is depressed, the caliper squeezes together, bringing a pair of brake shoes into contact with the rotor. The friction of the opposing brake pads as they squeeze the rotor slows the rotor rotation and causes the wheel to slow and stop. Disc Brake Pneumatic (air) brake systems are the most commonly used in fire service apparatus and commercial motor vehicles in general. Air brakes use compressed air to make the brakes work. An air brake system typically has three functions each having distinct features: service brake, parking brake, and emergency brake systems. The service brake system applies and releases the brakes when you depress the brake pedal during normal driving operations. The parking brake system applies and releases the parking brakes when you use the parking brake control. The emergency brake system uses parts of the service and the parking brake systems to stop the vehicle in the event of a brake system failure. The main operating components of an air brake system are: Air Compressor – The air compressor pumps air into the air storage tanks. The compressor receives power from the vehicle motor through gears or a V-line belt. The compressor may be air or oil cooled. Air Compressor Governor – The governor automatically engages and disengages the compressor to maintain preset levels in the air storage tanks. When the air tank pressure rises to a preset level (around 125 psi) the governor stops the compressor. When the tank pressure falls below a preset level (around 100 psi) the governor allows the compressor to start pumping again. Air Storage Tank – Air storage tanks are used to hold the compressed air. The number and the size of the tank(s) depend on the size of the vehicle and any auxiliary functions that draw air from the system. The tanks hold enough air for the service brakes to be used several times even if the compressor fails to automatically replenish the air. All air has a certain level of humidity which means that there is always water vapor in the atmosphere. Air is heated as it's compressed, and it cools as it travels through the discharge line to the air storage tank. This cooling results in condensation creating pools of water in the bottom of the air tanks. Oil from the compressor and any contaminants that made it through the compressor’s air filter can also be in the water. This moisture can lead to blockages or malfunctions if the the water freezes. It can also lead to corrosion or reduce capacity in the storage tanks. Since the moisture tends to collect at the bottom of the air storage tanks each tank has a method of draining or bleeding the tank. Tanks can have either a stopcock valve that requires turning to open or a spring-loaded stopcock that is opened by pulling on a cable that is usually MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 5 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 reachable without climbing under the vehicle. **NOTE** It is important to remember that once the tanks have been bled the system must be recharged prior to moving the vehicle. Most fire service vehicles also have an automatic air dryer installed between the air compressor and storage tanks. Their purpose is to filter out water vapor, oil vapor, and other contaminants before they can reach the air tanks and valves. This helps prevent freeze-up during the winter and extends the life of air valves. Safety Valve – A safety valve is installed in the first air tank the air compressor pumps air to. This valve protects the tank and the rest of the system from being over pressurized. This valve is usually set to release at 150 psi. **NOTE** If this safety valve releases air there is a problem that a mechanic should be notified immediately. Brake Pedal – To apply the brakes you press down on the brake pedal. Pushing the pedal down harder applies more air pressure. Letting up on the brake pedal reduces the air pressure and releases the brakes. Releasing the brakes lets some of the compressed air to go out of the system, so the air pressure in the tanks is reduced. Pressing and releasing the pedal unnecessarily can let air out faster than the compressor can replace it. If the pressure gets too low the brakes loose effectiveness and at the extreme the spring brakes will apply. Foundation – Foundation are the components at the wheels. They form the basis for the rest of the brake system, hence “foundation.” The types of foundation brake systems are: S-cam Brakes – When you push the brake pedal, air is let into each brake chamber. Air pressure pushes the rod out, moving the slack adjuster, thus twisting the brake camshaft. This turns the S-cam (named because of its S design). The S-cam forces the brake shoes away from one another and presses them against the inside of the brake drum. When you release the brake pedal, the S-cam rotates back and a spring pulls the brake shoes away from the drum, letting the wheels roll freely again. Wedge Brakes – In this type of brake, the brake chamber push rod pushes a wedge directly between the ends of the two break shoes. This shoves them apart and against the inside of the brake drum. Wedge brakes may have a single brake chamber, or two brake chambers, pushing wedges in at both ends of the brake shoes. Wedge type brakes may be self-adjusting or may require manual adjustment. Disc Brakes – In air-operated disc brakes, air pressure acts on a brake chamber and slack adjuster, like S-cam brakes. But instead of the S-cam, a “power screw” is used. The pressure of the brake chamber on the slack adjuster turns the power screw. The power screw clamps the disc or rotor between the brake lining pads of a caliper, similar to a large C-clamp. MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 6 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 Supply Pressure Gauge(s) – All air-brake vehicles have a pressure gauge connected to the air tank. If the vehicle has a dual air brake system, there will be a gauge for each half of the system. (Or a single gauge with two needles). These gauges let you know how much pressure is in the tanks. Low Air Pressure Warning – A low pressure warning signal is required on all vehicles with air brakes. A warning signal you can see must come on before the air pressure in the air tanks falls below 60 psi. The warning is usually a red light and on some vehicles a warning buzzer sounds as well. Brake Light Switch – Drivers behind you must be warned when you put your brakes on. The air brake system does this with an electric switch that works by air pressure. The switch turns on the brake lights when you are applying the brakes. Spring Brakes – All vehicles must be equipped with emergency brakes and parking brakes. They must be held on by mechanical force (because air pressure may leak out). Spring brakes are used to meet these needs. When driving powerful springs are held back by air pressure. If the air pressure is lost during a catastrophic failure or overuse of the service brakes, the springs automatically apply the brakes. The air pressure is also released by the driver using a control on the dashboard to apply the brakes for parking. Parking Brake Controls – In most vehicles, you apply the parking brakes using a diamond-shaped, yellow, pull-push control knob. You pull the knob out to put the parking brakes on (spring brakes), and you push it in to release them. **NOTE** Avoid pushing the brake pedal down when the spring brakes are on. The combined forces of the springs and the air pressure could damage the brakes. Most systems are designed to prevent damage, however best practice is to not simultaneously engage the service and parking brakes. Apparatus equipped with air brakes use two methods for parking brakes. First is a driveline brake, which is an actual disc or drum that attaches to the drive shaft and is operated by cables or levers. The second type is a spring-activated brake atop a service brake chamber that automatically applies the brake when the air pressure drops below a preset pressure. It is important to define what a Dual Air Brake System is. Most new vehicles use a dual air brake system for safety reasons. A dual air brake system has two separate air brake systems that use a single set of brake controls. Each system has its own tanks, hoses, and lines, etc. One system typically operates the regular brakes on the rear axle(s). The other system operates the regular brakes on the front axle. The first system is called the primary and the other called the secondary system. Many vehicles are equipped with Antilock Braking Systems (ABS). The purpose of the ABS is to permit the driver of the vehicle to stop the vehicle in the shortest possible distance while maintaining full control. By preventing the MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 7 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 wheels from locking, ABS helps to improve control and stability. ABS allows steering during braking applications, and in most instances, reduces stopping distances, especially on wet, icy, or loose gravel surfaces. ABS use sensors at each of the wheels to send wheel speed information to a central computer. When the computer senses that a wheel is about to lock up, it automatically “pumps” the brakes on that wheel. Due to the size and weight of today’s apparatus, secondary or auxiliary braking systems have been added to increase the braking capabilities of the vehicles. Essentially there at three (3) types of auxiliary braking systems: Engine Brake Automatic Transmission Retarder Driveline Retarder The engine brake is known as a compression brake, or by the trade name “Jake Brake”. The brake mechanism uses the “compression” that the engine creates to slow the vehicle down. Essentially the system is allowing more new air into the cylinders of the engine causing it to work or bear down harder creating less horsepower and a force. The engine brake customarily comes with a selection switch allowing the driver to decide on the amount of work the braking system should do (2 cyl, 4 cyl, 6 cyl) or high or low. It should be noted that engine brakes on vehicles with automatic transmission are typically not effective below 20 miles per hour (mph) due to the low rpm’s of the engine while operating at low speeds. **NOTE** Most manufacturers recommend the engine brake be turned off or placed in a lower mode during inclement weather or slippery road conditions. The automatic transmission retarder is attached to the transmission either on either end of the transmission. The input retarder operates on the input end and the output retarder, which is the most prevalent on fire service apparatus, is attached to the output end of the transmission. The retarder system is self-contained and consists of a vaned rotor, which rotates in a vaned cavity. The rotor is splined to and driven by the output shaft. An external accumulator holds transmission fluid until the retarder is activated. When activated, the fluid in the accumulator is pressurized and directed into the retarder cavity. The interaction of fluid with the rotating and stationary vanes causes the retarder rotor speed, and hence the output shaft, to decrease and slow the vehicle. **NOTE** Most manufacturers recommend the retarder be turned off during inclement weather or slippery road conditions. The driveline retarder can be divided into 2 types, hydraulic and electromagnetic. Both types are attached to the driveshaft between the transmission and the rear axle. The hydraulic type absorbs energy by pumping oil around the driveshaft slowing the vehicle down. The electromagnetic retarder sets up a magnetic field that grabs the driveline. The absorbed energy is transferred to the surrounding atmosphere as heat. **NOTE** Most manufacturers recommend the retarder be turned off during inclement weather or slippery road conditions. MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 8 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 EXHAUST SYSTEMS Vehicle exhaust systems have grown increasingly complicated as emission control standards have increased. Since 2007 most diesel engines are equipped with "aftertreatment" systems integral to the exhaust system. For the apparatus operator, there are two primary areas of concern that impact vehicles equipped with these systems; the Diesel Exhaust Fluid (DEF) and the Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF). Both the DEF and DPF are included in the instrument panel light cluster to alert the driver to the system status. DEF is a non-hazardous solution of 32.5% urea and 67.5% de-ionized water used in post-2009 diesel vehicles. DEF is sprayed into the exhaust stream of diesel vehicles to break down nitrogen oxide emissions into nitrogen and water. DEF is not a fuel additive and never comes into contact with diesel. It is stored in a separate tank, typically with a blue filler cap. The DEF tank is separate from the diesel fuel tank and should be refilled only when it reaches half. There is no need to continuously top off the DEF tank. The DEF level indicator is generally located immediately adjacent to the diesel fuel level indicator on the dashboard. DO NOT allow the DEF tank to reach empty or the vehicle will automatically reduce power. CMF stocks DEF in 2.5 gallon containers with filler tubes or in bulk drums at some fueling locations. DEF may be requested as needed through normal supply procedures. DEF crystallizes when stored for prolonged periods as the water evaporates. Do not use DEF that shows signs of crystallization and always completely use a container to avoid storing opened containers. Use the filler tube supplied with the case to avoid spills or splashes. Spills can be safely washed down with water. DEF is not corrosive to human skin, however is corrosive to aluminum. Do not allow it to remain on the diamond tread. The freezing point of DEF is 12°F, however vehicles are equipped to thaw the DEF and this should not restrict use of the vehicle. Personal protective equipment is not necessary when handling DEF, however it will stain clothes. The DPF indicator illuminates when sufficient particulate has accumulated in the system to require regeneration. Regeneration occurs in one of two modes; automatically when the vehicle is at highway speeds for in excess of 20 minutes or while parked. Parked regeneration is most likely the mode required simply due to the type of driving done by fire apparatus. Personnel must refer to the manufacturer’s instructions for the breed of apparatus for specific instructions on conducting regeneration. Beyond the emissions control features, the exhaust system is basic and is comprised of a muffler or mufflers, exhaust pipes, tail pipes, and or vertical stacks. It is MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 9 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 important to note that a faulty exhaust system affects the performance of the motor and can emit poisonous fumes into the crew area causing serious illness. DRIVELINE The driveline consists of the transmission, front universal joint, driveshaft, rear universal joint, differential, and the rear axle. The transmission is a system of gears that allows change in the ratio of the number of engine revolutions to the number of wheel revolutions. The drive shaft connects to the rear of the transmission and is powered to turn the differential. The differential is a component of the rear axle that the rear wheels are attached to and allows wheels on the same axle to turn at different speeds when making turns. The entire system works in unison to power the rear wheels. Locking Differential Vehicles may be equipped with a locking differential that is engaged by a switch on the dashboard. A locking differential temporarily divides torque from the driveline to be delivered equally to all wheels sharing an axle, regardless of their traction. The drive wheels will act like they are rotating on a common shaft. One wheel that finds good traction will keep the truck moving. Without a locking differential, the wheels without traction may continue to spin with little torque being sent to the wheels with traction. ✓ Never engage the differential lock above 25mph or while the wheels are spinning ✓ When engaged, steering radius will increase dramatically ✓ Disengage once the vehicle is freely moving—do not drive on dry pavement with the lock engaged or damage may occur to tires or axle components ✓ When tire chains are installed, do not attempt to turn the vehicle with the lock engaged. Inter-Axle Differential Lock (tandem axle chassis) The inter-axle differential in a tandem axle chassis provides for necessary differential action between the axles. This allows the wheels of either axle to revolve faster or slower than the wheels of the other axle in order to compensate for cornering, uneven road surfaces, and slightly different tire sizes. When encountering soft or slippery road conditions, the inter-axle differential can be locked out, eliminating any differential action between the axles. ✓ Engage the IAD lock only when stopped or moving at slow speed. NEVER lock the IAD lock with the rear wheels spinning. ✓ Disengage once the vehicle is freely moving—do not drive on dry pavement with the lock engaged. There are two types of transmissions: standard and automatic. The standard or manual transmission uses a clutch assembly to shift the transmission gears depending on the RPMs of the motor and the desired speed requested. Computer modules control the automatic transmissions. The modules signal and influence the engines RPMs during transitional shifting. MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 10 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 STEERING SYSTEM The steering wheel and column connect to steer the vehicle. They connect to a gear and linkage mechanism that changes the direction of the front wheels. In most vehicles this either “power assist” or “power steering” to ease the turning of the steering wheel. These are both hydraulic (fluid) driven systems. ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS The electrical system supplies power for primary and auxiliary functions. The primary functions of the electrical system include: power the generator and storage battery, generator/alternator, and voltage regulators; power distribution (via engine wiring); timing (distributor); and spark generation if equipped. Auxiliary functions include: inside/outside lighting (headlights; amber, red signaling or warning lights; turn signals; instrument panel lights; etc.); and horn, siren, and public address system. SUSPENSION This system is comprised of leaf springs, shock absorbers/coils, air rides, and wheels and tires that enable the driver to maintain control on rough terrain and sharp curves. WHEELS AND TIRES As mentioned before the wheels and tires are a part of the suspension system; however, it’s important to define them a bit more. Both wheels and tires must have a weight rating which will accommodate the weight distributed through the axle and springs. The condition of the tires is based on inflation, tread design, and tread wear. All of these have a major impact on vehicle handling. Each tire has only about 40 square inches of contact with the road. It is imperative that both the inflation pressure and tread be in good condition to provide maximum safety. The minimum recommended tread depth for emergency vehicles is 4/32 inches. Automatic Traction Control To aid the tires in maintaining traction, apparatus may be equipped with an automatic traction control function. This system monitors wheel speeds and automatically applies braking to a drive wheel that is spinning. In extreme situations, engine speed may also be decreased until traction is achieved leaving the driver unable to accelerate. If it is desirable to rock the vehicle when stuck and the automatic traction control is cutting the throttle, engage the “mud and snow” switch or other override control provided by the chassis manufacturer. MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 11 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 EMERGENCY VEHICLE PRE-RESPONSE PREVENTIVE INSPECTIONS Emergency vehicles of all types should be inspected prior to each shift and whenever an event or incident occurs that may cause damage to the vehicle. Emergency vehicle accidents caused by the lack of maintenance or vehicle malfunction are preventable. Regardless of who performs the actual maintenance on the vehicle, it is the driver’s responsibility to confirm the vehicle is ready for use. The responsibility for the mechanical safety of the vehicle is that of the driver. IF IT ISNT RIGHT, DO NOT DRIVE IT. The preventive maintenance inspection not only identifies problems, but often permits repairing them at least temporarily. Inspections, maintenance, and repairs must be recorded by the Department. The records must include the date and description of all maintenance, repairs, and inspections performed. Inspections can be broken into nine core areas to expedite the inspection process. 1. Check prior maintenance records 2. Conduct a vehicle overview 3. Conduct an engine compartment check 4. Conduct an interior cab check 5. Conduct a vehicle walk around check 6. Conduct a compartment and equipment check 7. Conduct an undercarriage check 8. Conduct a moving and driving test 9. Complete inspection process The following is a break down of the nine categories listed above: Check PM Records - Each day the records of the previous days should be reviewed for defects and repairs. Vehicle Overview – Conduct a vehicle overview including inspecting for body damage and cleanliness; and leveling of the vehicle (indicates suspension problems). Engine Compartment – Conduct an engine compartment check with the engine off. You should check the following: Oil levels Coolant levels Power steering fluid level Transmission fluid level Air compression belts Hydraulic reservoir Brake fluid level Battery fluids both left and right Windshield washer fluid levels MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 12 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 Belts and wiring harnesses Steering box not leaking Safety devices including hood latches and safety bars for tilt cabs Interior Cab – Conduct an interior cab check by first properly preparing for the vehicle inspection: Engage the parking brake, chock the wheels, turn the batteries on, turn on the ignition master, place transmission in neutral, and start the engine. Check the instrument/dash gauges for operating voltages, temperatures, pressures, and levels. Check the accelerator pedal tread, in place and not loose. Conduct brake test and listen for obvious leaks, and/or blown diaphragms. Check steering wheel and column for centering, excessive play (greater than 10 degrees), and abnormal movement. Check electric/air horns for equal tone quality from each horn. Check electronic and mechanical sirens for excessive draw on ammeter and voltage fluctuations and electrical system problems. Check windshield wipers and washers as well as heating and defrosting systems. Check radio equipment including fixed, portable, public address system, and cellular phone. Check for the onboard documents (accident reports, vehicle registration, insurance card, etc.) Interior lighting systems should be checked to ensure they are working properly. Mechanisms for the seat adjustment, both mechanical and pneumatic, should be checked to ensure they are working properly. Check seatbelt (occupant restraints) systems. Check the interaxle differential locking systems, both dual and tandem axle. Check visual and audible chassis warning systems, including oil, water, and transmission fluid level and temperature and open door compartment warning lights. Ensure outside mirrors, both manual and mechanical, can be adjusted and the wiring for the heating system is intact and operational. There should be the appropriate maps and accountability rings/systems on board. Internal communication devices and equipment (David Clark Systems) should be checked. Check the fast idle RPMs to ensure that it can maintain the electrical system. Check warning lights. Vehicle Walk Around – Conduct a vehicle walk around and operate and/or check the following: Windshield and windows for any cracks that may necessitate taking the vehicle out of service. If damage to the windshield obscures or distorts your vision the windshield requires repair. Check headlights, both low and high beams and four-way flashers. Visualize the condition and operations of the emergency warning lights. MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 13 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 Check DOT marker lights and reflectors. Check turn signal function. With assistance, check to make sure all the brake lights are operational. Check the generator and/or auxiliary power devices and attached appliances or lights. Check levers, switches, and knobs on all exterior panels. On the tires and wheels, check for oblivious gouges, slashes, cuts, bubbles, or any other damage. Look for indications of rust or peeling paint on non-aluminum rims. Check the condition of the lug nuts and wheel hubs. Check for any hub oil leaks. Inspect the rims for damage and missing weights. Check condition, inflation, and tread depth on tires. The depth of the tread should be 4/32” on steering axles and 2/32” on non-steering axles. Check the automatic snow chains for condition, position, and operation. The undercarriage and ground should be checked for any obvious fluid leaks (note the color of the fluid leaking). Compartment Check – Conduct the compartment and equipment check: Make sure the compartment latching mechanisms work properly. Ensure the portable power equipment on board is working properly and fueled. Ensure the inventory is complete and in its proper place. Check the circuit breakers for onboard generators. Ensure the DOT required traffic warning devices such as cones, flares, and reflective triangles are on board. Ensure at least one dry chemical fire extinguisher is on board and charged. Crew equipment should include SCBA, hand lights, AED, EMS, as the basic, should be checked to ensure they are in working order. Ensure all other equipment (haz-mat lights, etc.) is working properly. Undercarriage – Conduct an undercarriage check: Bleed the moisture from the air tanks as required. Check the color of the fluid being emitted – light gray sludge indicates a bad compressor o **NOTE** Moisture should be bled from tanks frequently during inclement weather and temperature fluctuations. The brake lines should be checked for cracks, fraying, dry rot, pulling or distortion, or wear marks. **NOTE** Check slack adjusters for excessive movement, not more than 1 inch, and whether they are frozen in place. Do not attempt to make slack adjustments; trained personnel should conduct the adjustments. The driveline (engine to differential/rear axle) should be properly greased, make sure there is no excessive movement in the joints, and the dust covers are intact. Check the exhaust system for soot stains that mark leaks, clamps and hangers securing the exhaust, and any deterioration of the components. MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 14 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 On the suspension system, mechanical or pneumatic, check the leaf springs for cracks and breaks, shackles and hangers, shock towers, and leaks and air leaks (shocks or bags). Make sure the automatic snow chains are securely attached and lined up properly. Look for oblivious damage, such as rust, loose parts, shiny spots from rubbing, asymmetrical parts (out of alignment), any cracks in the frame rails, and shifting or damaged body mounts. The inner sides of wheels and tires/ sidewalls on the tires should be checked for excessive dusting, fluid leaks, bad seals, and cracked brake drums and shoes. The wiring harness should be checked for frayed or cut wires. Check the fuel tank for oblivious leaks or weeping, straps and grounding pad are intact, fuel lines are ok, and the overflow is not kinked. Check the transmission, rear end, plugs, vents, and axle for leaks or signs of weeping. Brake Test/Air Brakes - Conduct a DOT Air Brake Test per the MCFRS PAG. Note: this test is ONLY to be used on apparatus with air brakes. Use the acronym “COLA” to remember the key points of a test: C = Cut In Pressure - approximately 100psi. Any compressor that does not cut in before 95psi must be reported to the shop immediately. O = Cut Out Pressure - between 120-135psi. Any higher than 135psi must be reported to the shop immediately. L = Low Pressure Warning - activate at approximately 90psi. Any device that activates below 60psi must be reported to the shop immediately. A = Air Leakage-with foot on or off the brake pedal, air leakage should be less than 3psi per minute (4psi per minute for a Tiller Truck). Complete Inspection Process – Document the inspection and compare it to the previous report. Follow-up on discrepancies noted. If discrepancies are noted that impact function, operational/directional ability, and/or safety, place the unit out-of- service and consult the MCFRS Central Maintenance Facility before placing the unit back in service. ROUTINE MAINTENANCE ON EMERGENCY VEHICLES Properly maintained vehicles are safer and more reliable to operate. In fire service vehicles safety and reliability are key to successful service delivery. Routine maintenance of the vehicle is the responsibility of the driver. Deficiencies should be repaired or reported in writing to oncoming shifts and maintenance personnel. The role of the emergency driver as it pertains to preventive and routine maintenance is defined in NFPA Standard 1002, Fire Department Vehicle Driver/Operator Professional Standards. Applicable, with minor adjustments, to all emergency vehicles the standards states: MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 15 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 “… Prior to operating fire department vehicles the fire apparatus operator shall meet the job performance requirements as defined in …” As this relates to the preventive maintenance function, it specifically states that the driver shall be able to “perform routine tests, inspections, and servicing functions on the specified systems and components and... so that the operational status of the vehicle is verified.” The systems and components identified in NFPA 1002 are listed here. Items for consideration under each are identified as reference: Batteries: Connections of the cables are clean and tight Battery (ies) box/compartment is clean and secure Braking System: Air Brakes ▪ Pressure prior to starting the engine (air) should be approximately 125 psi; ▪ Build-up time, if appropriate (air), when the engine is operating at normal RPMs, the pressure should build from 85 psi to 100 psi within 45 seconds in dual air systems. In single air systems, pressure should build up from 50 to 90 psi within 3 minutes when operating at normal RPMs. ▪ Moisture in system/drain air tanks, in tanks with manual bleed valves, turn the valve ¼ turn to drain air, moisture, and dirt from system. Return valve to closed position to build up air in system again Hydraulic Brakes Proper fluid level in the master cylinder No signs of leaks or damaged lines ABS verification (dash light) Braking Operation (during runs as well as at inspection time) Brake pedal (proper range of motion) Coolant System: Correct level (generally approximately 2 inches below the top of the radiator, check with local requirements) Hose and/or connections wear/leaks Electrical System: Ensure all lights and audio equipment is operational, it bulbs need to be replaced make sure the correct bulb size and style is used and replace faulty fuse in audio system if needed. Voltmeter should be reading between 12 and 14 volts Fuel: Correct level, if not, fill tank with proper type of fuel Check any power equipment levels and fill as needed with the proper fuel for that equipment MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 16 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 Hydraulic Fluids: Check for leaks on the floor under the vehicle and areas around connections of the hoses Ensure proper levels and add (if permissible) with the appropriate type of fluid Lubrication: Check for grease or oil drippings Ensure there is not grease thrown in the engine compartment or body Use grease gun to fill “zirc” fittings when dry or on scheduled maintenance **Note** Avoid overfilling fittings to avoid grease splatter or slinging Oil (Engine): Leaks on the floor under the vehicle Check levels using the dipstick in the engine compartment o Checked when the engine is cool or cold o Engine is warm or hot the oil is dispersed throughout the engine o Allow 20 to 30 minutes for oil to settle back into the oil pan after the motor is run The color and texture of the oil on the dipstick should be noted. If the oil is frothy (bubbly) or a color other than dark brown or black, there may be water or fuel infiltrating the oil that is indicative of a motor problem. Tires: Condition (sidewalls, rims, tread) Correct inflation pressure, fill as needed to the recommended pressure. o The recommended pressure is set by the vehicle body manufacturer and may differ from the chassis manufacturer Tread depth (2/32nd or 4/32nd dependent upon the axle) Steering System: Ease of operation (power OK and no extra play) Correct fluid level, this may be checked while the engine is hot or cold and the fluid level should correspond to that recommended on the dipstick SAFETY CHECKS AND ADJUSTMENTS MADE BEFORE DRIVING There are certain items that should be checked by the driver prior to moving the vehicle: Occupant Restraint Systems – Restraints reduce the likelihood of serious injury or death in the event of an accident. The law and MCFRS policy requires that there be a restraint for all riders and that they be used any and all times the vehicle is in motion. In addition to a collision, the restraints keep the driver in position behind the wheel and in front of the controls during sharp turns, over excessive maneuvers, roll overs, and yaw skidding or spins. Adjustable Head Restraints – Head restraints help prevent cervical spine and other in juries from hyperextension and hyperflexion; ie. forces resulting from rear end collisions. The proper adjustment for the head restraints is to have the center of the MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 17 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 restraint at the center of the skull not at the base of the neck. If the restraint is to low, the neck could be broken if force of impact is great. Seat Position – When the seat is properly adjusted, the brake and accelerator can be applied fully without fully extending the leg. The steering can be held with only a slight bend at the elbows. The seat should be fully locked into position. If the seat was to move during operation, it could cause the driver to lose control. Mirrors –The side-view mirrors should be adjusted to view the edge of the vehicle and out to the adjoining lanes. Convex mirrors need to be adjusted to view the blind spots that the side-view mirrors do not cover. In large vehicles the convex mirrors are invaluable for managing lane position and expanding your view around the vehicle. PRECAUTIONS BEFORE MOVING The driver controls the movement of the vehicle; therefore the drive must verify when passengers are ready. Prior to moving the vehicle audible or visual communication is necessary with all crew members confirming that they are belted and ready. Prior to moving, ensure the bay door is fully opened and/or the wheel chock is stowed, all compartments and cab doors are closed, and there are no obstacles in the path of the vehicle. If you are dispatched to a call in the midst of training or daily checkout, it is especially important to ensure the crew, equipment, and apparatus are all ready for departure. Do not sacrifice a quick check of the apparatus for the sake of speed. OPERATING AN EMERGENCY VEHICLE Purpose of Emergency Vehicle Signaling Equipment Lights and sirens (Emergency Vehicle Signaling Devices) are used to request the right of way from traffic, both vehicular and pedestrian. Warning and signaling equipment assist the responders with arriving at an incident expeditiously. Due regard MUST always be exercised, regardless of the perceived severity of the emergency. Local Law (Maryland) In order to request the right-of-way and enact the exemptions provided to emergency vehicles, Maryland law requires an emergency vehicle operator to use both audible and visual emergency warning devices while responding to an emergency. You may not be protected from consequences should you choose to run “silent” with only warning lights engaged. It is important to remember use of signaling equipment by the operator DOES NOT guarantee other drivers will yield or even see you, nor does it free the driver from the possibility of civil or criminal liability if a collision does occur. To better understand the liability and responsibility of the driver, it is important for drivers to know some key terms: MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 18 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 True Emergency – is defined as a situation in which there is a high probability of death or serious injury to an individual or significant property loss. Due Regard – for the safety of others means that a reasonably careful person performing similar duties under similar circumstances would act in the same manner. Similar to the “standard of care” concept for EMT. Negligence – A legal deficiency or wrong that results whenever a person fails to exercise that degree of care that a prudent person would exercise under similar circumstances. It indicates a lack of “due regard.” Gross Negligence – Is the reckless disregard of the consequences of an act to another person. It occurs when a person’s actions (or lack of) result in the failure to exercise even a slight degree of care. Willful and Wanton – Intentional or with careless indifference (considered the most serious for of negligence). Another assessment is that “you did it, you have done it before, and you would do it again.” Vicarious Liability – The legal liability placed on one person for the acts committed by another person. This concept extends liability to supervisors and instructors for acts of personnel they manage or teach. Usually a court will judge the actions of an emergency vehicle driver based on two primary considerations: 1. Was the emergency vehicle responding to a true emergency? 2. Did the emergency vehicle driver exercise due regard for the safety of others? If the answer to both questions is yes, the emergency driver has demonstrated a responsible and professional attitude through his/her subsequent action(s). Using Emergency Vehicle Signaling Equipment An emergency vehicle driver must use all signaling devices when responding. Remember that most emergency vehicles are taller than the average automobile on the road. As you approach another vehicle from behind there are fewer warning lights visible to that driver in their mirrors. Your unit can be so close that only a couple of lights on the grill of your unit are in position to gain their attention. This is another reason to leave a space cushion between you and the vehicles ahead. Another good practice is to leave the cab windows cracked open to aid with hearing other responding apparatus, trains, and traffic. BASIC EMERGENCY VEHICLE CONTROL TASKS Steering, accelerating, and braking accomplish directional and speed control. A competent emergency vehicle driver understands, chooses, and applies each of the MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 19 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 basic driving maneuvers in the right combination and intensity at the right moments to effectively and safely operate their apparatus. Steering – Steering an emergency vehicle, whether driving non-emergency, responding to an emergency, or making an evasive maneuver, requires certain habits. These include: Use both hands on the steering wheel as much as possible. Obviously one hand is occasionally required to operate other vehicle functions, such as the windshield wipers, lights, and transmission. Maintain hands in the “9 and 3” or “10 and 2” position on the steering wheel for maximum control and turning without repositioning your grip. Braking and Stopping – Effective braking is essential to the safe operation of an emergency vehicle. Braking must be applied in a timely fashion with the correct intensity to maintain control. Prior to anti-lock braking systems becoming nearly universal, vehicles with hydraulic brakes required firmly pumping the brake pedal during hard stops to avoid the locking of the wheels into a skid. Air brakes do not react well to repeated pumping of the pedal and instead required just enough firm and steady pressure to slow the vehicle without locking the wheels. This was referred to as “threshold” braking because the driver was seeking the threshold between braking and skidding. Anti-lock braking systems (ABS) change the dynamic of applying pressure to the pedal on both hydraulic and air brake systems. The following guidance applies: Do not pump the brake pedal. This only creates confusion for the monitoring system that manages the ABS. Steady pressure to the pedal signals the system that you want to slow down and the system manages the foundation brakes to carry out that action. Even vehicles with ABS can skid. If the vehicle’s wheels lock, immediately release the brake pedal and steer with the skid. Reapply the brakes to attempt to establish traction. In areas where there is a high probability of braking, i.e. passing through an intersection or traveling against traffic; the driver should “cover” the brake by hovering their foot over the brake pedal without applying pressure. This action will reduce the reaction time if braking is required. The single most important aspect of braking safely is allowing enough space around your vehicle to identify the need to brake and then applying the brakes in a controlled manner. In heavy apparatus when you expand your look ahead distance sufficiently you can often slow and almost stop without even needing to engage the service brakes. Backing – Backing collisions account for a large portion of preventable emergency vehicle incidents. Since speed is usually low, most backing incidents are relatively minor unless they involve a pedestrian. Regardless of severity, any collision makes the unit MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 20 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 unavailable for service for a period of time varying from a an hour or two to days. It also results in consequences for the driver and potentially a bad public image for the MCFRS. Backing apparatus safely is accomplished by adhering to some basic principles: Position to minimize the need for backing - If thought is given to the next move or destination for a vehicle, a simple adjustment in the approach can minimize or even eliminate the need for backing. Conduct an approach assessment – When approaching the place to back up the driver must complete a size-up of the entire area for obstacles that effect their planned path. This can only be done if the driver slows down so they can view the area before pulling past to position for backing. Even when spotters are deployed there are times when the driver should dismount to see the area themselves before backing. Spotters do not absolve the driver of responsibility for avoiding a collision. Be predictable – The spotter(s) must know where the driver is going to properly assist. Drivers must communicate their planned path before the spotter(s) dismounts the apparatus. If confusion develops the apparatus must stop and a conversation needs to occur. Give audible notice – Most apparatus is equipped with a backup alarm of some type. When shifting the vehicle into reverse pause before backing to allow the alarm to engage and provide some warning to pedestrians around the vehicle. Recognize that high levels of ambient noise around the vehicle, such as an active fire scene, may disguise or overwhelm the sound of the backup alarm. Personnel can also become desensitized to the audible warning, so never assume the alarm is heard. Use a spotter – The first spotter should normally position at the driver side rear about 10 to 20 feet behind the tailboard. Additional spotters can be helpful in complex situations and should be positioned to watch the passenger side corners to supplement the primary spotter. Spotters need to allow themselves some space cushion to the apparatus and the ability to escape should be vehicle unexpectedly continue backing toward them. The driver and the spotter must make acknowledged eye contact. If the spotter disappears from sight, the driver must stop immediately or risk running over their co-worker. IF a spotter is unavailable, conduct a walk around the vehicle before backing. Drivers must remove their headset and roll down their window prior to backing – The sense of sound is needed to augment the visual information being gathered in the mirrors. Many collisions have occurred despite the presence of a spotter because the driver momentarily looked away from the spotter and failed to hear the spotter yelling to stop. Understand hand and audible signals – Ensure that the driver and spotter have the same understanding of what the signals mean. If confusion occurs the driver needs to stop and establish more clear communications. Spotters need to give clear guidance. The best spotter is often someone who is themselves an apparatus operator. MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 21 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 Use mirrors – Drivers need to be well versed at using the mirrors. Hanging out the window or physically turning their body around in an attempt to see to the rear are not acceptable practices and should only be done in odd circumstances. Just like while driving forward, the driver needs to scan all mirrors and avoid fixating on just the driver side mirror. Beware of the front corners of the vehicle – When backing the front end of the vehicle can swing into blindspots and strike fixed objects that are not visible to the spotter. Landscaping rocks, low retaining walls, fire hydrants, and protective bollards are all examples of objects than be out of view of the driver when backing. These types of obstacles need to be identified on the approach assessment. Maintain speed control – Backing should be done at an extremely slow speed. It is reckless and unnecessary to back vehicles more quickly than a spotter can casually walk. Parking – Emergency vehicles are parked under a wide variety of conditions and time constraints. Nearly every emergency response will require the driver to decisively park the apparatus in a spot that is selected in a matter of seconds to best support operations. It requires skill and experience to do it fast and without mishap. Where experience is lacking, it must be replaced with a slower pace. New drivers need to learn to slow down upon approach to the scene. Some factors to take into account when positioning an emergency vehicle are as follows: Identify existing hazards on the scene and potential hazards as the incident escalates. Recognize overhead wires may fall, flammable liquids flow downhill, and flammable vapors may accumulate in low areas. Traffic is ALWAYS a hazard on every incident scene. Know policies that address positioning on the specific incident types, i.e. trench rescues, gas leaks, hazardous materials releases. Consider the location of your vehicle’s exhaust outlet when responding to outdoor emergencies, such as vehicle crashes or medical emergencies. Avoid positioning your exhaust where it blows into the work area. Most emergency vehicles are not designed for off-road use. Before “beaching” an apparatus the driver needs to consider the terrain, the apparatus, the weather, and the legitimate incident needs. When operating an ambulance or arriving on a scene later in the incident sometimes it is best to park with consideration to future positioning or departure of the vehicle. There are times when it is important to not commit too deeply into a scene and limit positioning options. Listening to scene reports, knowing arrival order, and seeking guidance from the incident commander are all sources of information regarding positioning. MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 22 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 URBAN DRIVING SKILLS Even in normal, non-emergency conditions, operating an emergency vehicle in urban areas requires a high degree of skill. Older communities with narrow streets to commercial areas with streets lined with midrise buildings to newer town center mixed use developments all share common hazards for fire apparatus. Bethesda, Rockville, Takoma Park, Silver Spring, the Kentlands, and numerous other areas of Montgomery County pose unique challenges for apparatus operators. Land values and a constantly increasing population inevitably lead to densely populated areas throughout the County as a transition from rural to urban occurs. Emergency vehicles are typically larger and heavier than the traffic around them. Even command or staff “buggies” are loaded down with equipment not normally found in a typical passenger vehicle. Urban areas naturally develop limited sight distances and limited space cushions created by gridlocked traffic, narrow travel lanes, raised medians, street parking, and very short setbacks on buildings. These factors are further complicated by pedestrians, alleys, parking lots, landscaping trees, and crosswalks. Speeds in excess of a posted limit are rarely justified. Excess speed should only be used if the road conditions permit it. Reasonable speed is one of the few factors under the direct control of the emergency vehicle operator that allows more time to react and more opportunity to control the vehicle if an evasive action is required. Recognize that urban environments diminish the effectiveness of warning lights and sirens. An expected reaction to an approaching emergency vehicle is to pull to the side and slow down or stop. In an urban environment other traffic may not have any space to do this or may choose to do undesirable things. Some of the possibilities are: stopping in the middle of a lane, trying to race ahead of the responding vehicle, or beat the emergency vehicle through an intersection. In extreme cases, aggressive drivers may intentionally interfere with an emergency vehicle they perceive to be delaying their travel. In other cases motorists may not react at all and just keep traveling. Modern vehicles have a great deal of sound deadening or insulation to increase occupant comfort. The volume of the radio or other entertainment systems, air conditioner noise, phone conversations, and/or poor driving habits of the driver can all be factors leading to a failure to yield to an emergency vehicle. Emergency vehicle drivers must avoid the temptation to become aggressive when they encounter vehicles failing to yield. Overly aggressive or emotional reactions to civilian motorists will eventually lead to a collision. While seeming counterintuitive, backing off the siren, maintaining following distance, and giving the other driver a chance to think and react is often the best way to handle confused or oblivious motorists. Beware of startling an unsuspecting motorist. They could respond by slamming on their brakes or causing a collision with other vehicles. Vary the siren pitch and duration; use headlights, horn, siren, or spot light to get their attention. Be patient and keep signaling. Be very cautious about passing until you are sure the other driver sees you. If you attempt to pass an unaware driver there is a risk they’ll identify you just MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 23 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 as you are beside them and panic at a moment where you have no space cushion to react defensively. Likewise avoid actions that could cause other drivers to enter intersections against the traffic light or crossing into oncoming traffic. In an effort to yield where medians and curbs leave no room another driver may move forward into cross traffic. Urban environments frequently make the use of opposing lanes a desirable option. Use of opposing lanes of traffic to pass other vehicles must be done with extreme caution as it multiplies the hazards to the emergency vehicle. Apparatus drivers should learn the typical traffic patterns for their response area. Traffic blockages are common during the morning and evening commutes. Drivers may need to develop different routes for different times of day or days of the week. Construction zones or special events may further enhance the need to identify alternate routes. When approaching gridlocked areas, slow down before reaching the blockage. This allow you time to identify the path of least resistance if one exists. Do not plow through the middle of stopped traffic when a right turn lane is wide open. The emergency vehicle driver can communicate their intention to other motorists through early lane positioning. Even where a lane is open as you approach, beware of motorists who panic and switch lanes unexpectedly. This can be especially true of right turn lanes or shoulders. Allow the traffic to make a path and avoid trapping your vehicle in a sea of surrounding traffic. Thinking in football terms – the best running backs sometimes let the play develop in front of them before they pick a path to run. If traffic is unable to move, moderate the use of your siren and/or horn as they may only increase confusion or anxiety. Patience will improve your safety and effectiveness. NEGOTIATING INTERSECTIONS Intersections are the most dangerous areas for emergency vehicles. Most people consider an intersection the meeting of two streets, however intersections come in many forms. An intersection is anywhere that other vehicles may cross your path, i.e. parking lot exits, alleys, driveways, trails, or railroad crossings. There are two types of intersections: an uncontrolled intersection is any intersection that does not offer a control device (stop sign, yield sign, traffic signals, or railroad gates) in the direction of travel of the emergency vehicle. A controlled intersection is defined as any intersection that has a control device that regulates the flow of traffic, including stop signs and traffic signals. Every intersection is a danger to the emergency vehicle operator until the cross traffic is confirmed to be controlled or absent. When approaching any intersection, consider the following: Scan the entire intersection for possible hazards (including vehicles turning right turn on red, pedestrians, vehicles not yielding). Observe conditions beyond the roadway. Slow down and cover the brake pedal with your foot. MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 24 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 Change the siren cadence not less than 200 feet from the intersection. Do not assume warning devices are seen or heard unless the actions of other drivers is confirmed. Identify a primary path through the intersection as well as contingency paths if unexpected obstructions are encountered. Be prepared to stop. This means adjusting speed and covering the brake until the reaction of other drivers becomes obvious. Establish eye contact with other vehicle drivers. Utilize crew resource management when available. The officer and other crew members may assist in identifying the status of oncoming traffic, but this does not relieve the driver of the ultimate responsibility for avoiding a collision. When crossing intersections with multiple lanes of cross traffic proceed one lane of traffic at a time. Treat each lane of traffic as a separate intersection. Be very cautious of intersecting lanes that are not controlled by stopped traffic. Impatient motorists see the open lanes as an opportunity to race past the other stopped traffic. Before exposing the apparatus to an intersection, the vehicle operator must make sure there is an adequate gap in traffic and/or traffic is yielding. The vehicle operator should at the very least: 1. look left – this traffic is usually the closest and immediate hazard 2. look right – once the left seems ready, check the next set of approaching lanes 3. look left again – ensure the nearest lanes remain safe to cross 4. look straight across – check that opposite traffic isn’t turning in front of you 5. check the mirrors – ensure impatient motorists have not pulled up beside you before making a turn When making a right turn at an intersection from a stop it takes about six seconds to turn right and accelerate to a speed of 30 mph. This time increases with the size of the vehicle. Do not turn in front of other motorists assuming they see your apparatus. Other drivers must have time to react to your sudden appearance ahead of them. An observation skill that needs to be developed by emergency vehicle drivers is reading the “body language” of other traffic. Some characteristics that can often be observed that help the emergency vehicle operator anticipate the actions of surrounding traffic are: Are the other cars changing speed? Does the driver appear to be scanning around them? Are they glancing at their mirrors? Are the turn signals or hazard flashers activated to try and signal a yielding action? Does the driver appear to be talking on a cell phone; either handheld or hands-free? MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 25 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 Is the other vehicle showing any signs of yielding or changing their position; sometimes other drivers are simply indecisive? Emergency vehicle operators can help other drivers by remaining predictable and signaling their intentions. Use all means of signaling – lights, sirens, turn signals, lane position, and eye contact or hand signals. As you approach stopped traffic, try to select your lane in advance and position the apparatus accordingly. Be decisive. Avoid weaving back and forth behind stopped traffic as this only increases the chance a civilian motorist will inadvertently switch lanes in front of your approach. Signal the emergency vehicles intent at least one block in advance of an urban intersection and five seconds in rural areas. Intersections require drivers to constantly scan the roadway, the median, the shoulders, the cross streets, and the mirrors to identify obstacles. Be constantly aware of other responding apparatus, including police units. As you get closer to the incident scene the more likely you are to meet other units at an intersection. This situation can be especially confusing to motorists as they are now faced with yielding to vehicles from multiple directions. Do not forget to scan for bad road surfaces, bicyclists or pedestrians, animals, and diminished clearances (road signs overhanging the road, parked vehicle mirrors or accessories). Ultimately, emergency vehicle operators must be prepared to some degree to stop at every intersection they encounter. Controlled intersections with stop or yield signals working against the travel route of the apparatus mandate the ability to stop in a controlled manner, however apparatus drivers must constantly search for conditions that could require yielding the right-of-way to avoid a collision. TURNING VEHICLES AROUND Any type of turnabout within open travel lanes exposes the apparatus to a collision. Be extremely cautious about passing through parking lots to turn around as they often have limited space, congested traffic lanes, and lots of pedestrians. Residential driveways can also be problematic as they are rarely constructed to hold the weight of heavy apparatus. Choosing a safe location to turnabout is important; choose an area with good visibility. You should have a clear view of the entire path of travel and all traffic lanes. Avoid hills, curves, and blind intersections where motorists may approach your apparatus with almost no warning. Operators must become familiar with the turning radius of their apparatus to judge what type of turn around maneuver is appropriate or feasible. The types of turnabouts include the U-turn and the three-point turn. The U-turn is advantageous as it allows the apparatus to avoid backing. It requires a wide roadway and good visibility. Drivers must also remain aware of road signs or other unanticipated obstacles that hinder the turn. Beware of civilian vehicles entering blindspots when swinging wide for a U-turn; most drivers are not anticipating your maneuver. Look for other vehicles approaching from the driver side rear before you begin to turn. MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 26 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 The three-point turn should only be used when the road is too narrow for a U-turn and other efficient options are not available. Three-point turns in open travel lanes need to be avoided as they tend to be done in a hurry and often a spotter is either not used or becomes exposed to uncontrolled traffic. Impatient or unaware motorists may strike the apparatus broadside or end up behind the apparatus during backing. The opportunity for a negative outcome is significant. SAFE FOLLOWING DISTANCES Emergency vehicles need a space cushion during travel to provide the operator time to react to conditions. A safe following distance allows the apparatus to stop or change lanes in a controlled manner without hitting the vehicle ahead should they stop or slow unexpectedly. Rear-end collisions are almost always avoidable when drivers pay attention and maintain good distances. If the proper distance is observed, left and right lateral evasive and other abrupt anti-collision maneuvering is minimized and unnecessary. Emergency vehicle operators must respect that their apparatus is considerably larger in dimension and weight than passenger vehicles. These differences create much larger forces working acting upon the vehicle and thus larger forces to stop the vehicle. The larger forces translate into longer stopping distances. Drivers must recognize that a safe following distance accounts for their perception time, reaction time, and braking time/distance. Before any braking can occur, the driver must perceive a need to brake. This requires the driver to be alert and scanning ahead. Reaction time is the period between recognition of a hazard to the time brake application begins. Average drivers require about ¾ second. Air brake systems lengthen reaction time by ½ to 1 second due to lag within the system. The driver’s ability to perform under stress and the drivers experience are also factors that influence reaction time. Before the brakes even engage as much as 2 ½ seconds may elapse; which equates to nearly 150 feet of travel distance at 40mph. Braking distance is the distance traveled from the first braking action until the vehicle comes to a full stop. Breaking distance varies nearly infinitely due to the factors involved. Vehicle speed, weight, mechanical condition, and tire condition are all factors. Road surfaces, weather, and the driver are also factors that affect braking distance. An appropriate following distance will allow enough time to come to a full stop if the vehicle ahead of you comes to a sudden stop. One way to estimate a safe following distance for an emergency vehicle is the “four second rule”. The four second rule maintains a separation of at least four seconds between the emergency vehicle and the vehicle ahead up to speeds of 40mph. For each additional 10mph another 1 second is added to increase the separation. In adverse weather conditions, add another 1 second per 10mph. The four second rule is simple to apply. When the vehicle traveling ahead passes a fixed object, begin counting the seconds. Stop counting when your vehicle passes that same fixed object. Compare this time to the recommended time established by the four second rule to reasonably approximate your safe following distance. MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 27 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 Policy and rules cannot replace sound judgment by the driver. Time and spacing requirements are effected by too many variables to be addressed by more than guidelines. Traffic density or volume, road surface conditions, hazards, roadway design, and speed limits influence the following and stopping distances. When conditions get bad, add more distance. PASSING ANOTHER VEHCILE Emergency vehicles are constantly overtaking other vehicles during a routine and emergency driving. In this section, the term “passing” references situations where the emergency vehicle must change lanes or make another maneuver to go around another vehicle. Some considerations to address before passing include: Is it necessary to pass? Is there a pressing need to “get around” the vehicles ahead, or is it related to driver impatience? Will vehicle traffic ahead move out of your lane in response to your audible/visual warning devices, negating the need for passing? Is there sufficient space and sight distance to change lanes? Does the emergency vehicle have enough acceleration ability to complete the maneuver or will you simply find yourself trapped beside the other vehicle? Roadway features can aid when making the decision to pass. Pay attention to: Highway signs - No Passing, Intersection Ahead, etc. Pavement markings - solid centerline, broken centerline, etc. Road configuration - hills, curves, intersecting roads, etc. If “No Passing” is advised, the transportation engineers have identified features that could create an unacceptable level of risk for a collision. Often “no passing” areas are established as the result of prior collision history on that road. Never blindly pass a stopped car or line of cars without knowing why they are stopped. Fire department vehicles are not exempt from stopping for school buses loading or unloading passengers. In any situation avoiding mishaps is optimal. The following are some good tips to avoid mishaps when passing: Pass assertively. Do not hesitate as conditions change rapidly. Stay in the passing lane the shortest time possible. Constantly scan the roadway for unmarked, intersecting roadways. Mentally note the location of each vehicle you pass so you can identify in the mirror when you’ve cleared the final vehicle. Visualize their location in relation to the side of the apparatus. In non-emergency situations it is often better to decelerate and merge in behind other vehicles than to attempt to accelerate past. MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 28 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 EXPRESSWAY OPERATIONS The term expressway includes interstates, freeways, turnpikes, or any other type of limited access multi-lane high speed roadway. Entering and exiting expressways require the operator to make quick and accurate decisions in rapid succession. Expressway traffic is often driving in excess of posted speeds and exposes emergency vehicles to traffic that is much more agile. Entering and exiting expressways is generally accomplished via ramps with varying lengths of acceleration or deceleration lanes. These ramps can be some of the most difficult areas to navigate in larger vehicles as one group of vehicles is slowing down to exit while another set is accelerating to enter. When entering or exiting the expressway, you must monitor the road ahead while simultaneously checking your mirrors. Key points to remember while merging on an expressway: Use your mirrors to keep track of adjacent lanes. Always be prepared to stop suddenly. Look well in advance of your current position. Note vehicles that are approaching the merge area and identify gaps for your merge. Adhere to ramp speed limits. Beware of signage indicating roll-over hazards or sharp curves. Beware that warning devices may startle other motorists as your apparatus approaches from a ramp. Other vehicles may stop suddenly or change lanes in panic. The curve of a ramp and presence of overpasses or sound walls makes visual and audible warning devices less effective. Expect to merge into the flow of traffic as normal, assess traffic flow, and then decide your best lane or approach. Remain predictable to other drivers and avoid weaving from one lane to another. DRIVING AT HIGH SPEEDS Driving at highway speeds or in excess of the posted speed limits presents significant hazards to emergency vehicles. Exceeding a posted speed limit is a privilege granted only during emergency response and should only be done with due regard for the safety of other motorists and the emergency apparatus. In all cases, consider the following: Posted speeds are based upon the roadway characteristics in good weather conditions. Gain and lose speed in straight lines, not in curves. Recognize when stopping distance exceeds sight distance. Sight distance is not under the driver’s control, but stopping distance is controlled by speed. Driving at higher speeds increases the potential for heavy or excessive braking action that may lead to brake fade. Higher speeds result in higher momentum and shifts in the center of gravity for a large vehicle. A moving vehicle naturally wants to stay in a straight line. As a vehicle enters a turn inertia results in centrifugal force that pushes the vehicle in a straight line rather than turning. This centrifugal force increase exponentially with speed. When the MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 29 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 centrifugal force becomes too high, the vehicle will either slide or roll over. For every curve or turn, there is a maximum speed for traveling through the curve safely. The tighter the curve, the higher the potential is for centrifugal force, therefore the slower the vehicle must travel. Roadways are sometimes built with a slight side grade to the inside of the curve that aids in countering the centrifugal forces working against the vehicle. If the road is graded toward the outside of the curve this will work against the vehicle and require even slower speeds. In addition to the grade of the surface, the type and condition of the road surface plays an important role in maintaining sufficient traction in turns. Due to land availability or restrictions, designers often lay out curves in a decreasing radius pattern. This is a design by which the turns start out with a relatively large radius (curve) that tightens as the vehicle passes through the curve. On decrease radius curves, the maximum entry speed is too fast for the later (tighter) portion of the curve. If the speed is too high for the tighter portion of the curve, physics will cause the vehicle to slide or roll over. Drivers must recognize when a ramp or curve is decreasing in radius. To better define the safe mechanics of transitioning a curve, the following is a breakdown of a curve and proper techniques to pass through it. Entry – Brake or decelerate to the proper entry speed before entering the curve. Enter the curve as far to the outside as possible. Entering on the outside of the curve effectively increases the radius of the track for the vehicle. The greater the radius, the faster the turn can be safely negotiated. Begin the turn as early as possible. Transition – If the maximum safe speed to maintain control passing through a curve has been attained, the emergency vehicle operator experiences full control of the vehicle. The maximum “safe” speed is not the maximum “possible” speed that conditions will allow. When approaching maximum possible speeds, it will feel as though the suspension is straining. Do not apply aggressive breaking. Allow natural friction of the engine and compression to slow the vehicle down. If you are traveling at near maximum speed in a curve, a relatively small event (e.g. some sand or gravel on the road) can cause complete loss of control. Once in the curve, it is best to coast at speed to maintain maximum traction. Attempting to accelerate while in a turn can result in loss of steering control and traction at the rear wheels. Exiting – Exiting curves requires the vehicle operator to keep the vehicle’s speed steady. Maintain position on the inner surface of the curve. Gently accelerate out of the curve after the apex has been reached and the vehicle is on a straight path. Stopping at higher speeds requires more stopping distance and is harder on the braking systems. Things to consider when braking at high speeds include: Braking creates friction that results in heat. Overheating in the brake system reduces braking effectiveness. Reduce the stress on brake systems by engaging auxiliary braking systems and downshifting the transmission. Drum brakes typically fade more quickly than disc brakes due to differences in heat dissipation capability. MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 30 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 HANDLING UNUSUAL AND DANGEROUS DRIVING SITUATIONS Driving In Adverse Conditions Emergency vehicle operators cannot choose to avoid driving in weather conditions that would normally stop civilian drivers. Adverse conditions can be categorized as follows: Traction Implications Environmental Hazards Vision Implications Emergency vehicle drivers must adjust their driving techniques for all adverse conditions as well as adjust the auxiliary braking systems that may be on their unit. The driver’s primary responsibility is the safety of the passengers and arriving safely at the incident. Slow down and drive at a speed reasonable and appropriate for the conditions. Increase following distances and drive smoothly with any vehicle to avoid sudden and dramatic maneuvering. Traction Implications – Traction can be adversely affected by a variety of conditions. Any materials or changes in the road surface will alter the friction between the road and the tires. Rain – In addition to oil buildup, water forms a layer that builds between the tires and the road surface. As little as 1/16th of water can cause hydroplaning of a vehicle. Standing water may also impact steering, braking, and general vehicle operation. Chemicals – Road surfaces may have any number of chemicals, but the most common are oil, grease, and fuel. Chemicals can be particularly problematic early in the onset of wet weather before the rain washes away the residue. Snow and Ice – Snow, slush, and ice create variable road conditions resulting in reduced traction for vehicle tires. Certain roadway features such as bridges or shady areas may accumulate snow or ice prior to other parts of the travelway. Leaves – Leaves or other vegetation debris can create slippery conditions when allowed to accumulate on the road surface. Whenever conditions have caused reduction in traction, the driver must reduce speed: and, steer, accelerate, or brake smoothly and evenly. The required stopping distances multiply depending on the condition of the road surface. Environmental Hazards – Adverse handling could be caused by natural conditions such as high winds, vegetation, and the contour of the terrain. Road construction and design are examples of manmade conditions. Vision Implications – Conditions that affect visibility include low-light driving, precipitation, vehicle construction, and the condition of the driver. MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 31 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 Low-light Driving – Low-light conditions create various challenges: hidden hazards; increased difficulty in judging the speed of other vehicles, and distance; limited highway lighting; and glare from roadside lights. Even with these limitations and possibly impaired vision, a few simple rules can help the driver compensate. Dim dash and cab lights at night. Reduce speed. Keep headlights and windshield clean. Recognize the blind spots created by the vehicle characteristics. Look beyond the headlights. Keep eyes moving and scan continuously. Precipitation – Rain, fog, and snow reduce visibility. In addition, rain and fog increase glare both during the day and at night. During the day when the sun is out, the snow on the ground creates a considerable glare as well. Poor visibility conditions require the operator to: 1. Drive slowly but keep moving. 2. Turn headlights (low beams only) and wipers on. 3. Use four way flashers if traveling 15 mph or more below the posted speed limit. 4. Watch for cars ahead that are moving very slowly. 5. Avoid decelerating suddenly. 6. If you must pull off the road, use four way flashers and warning lights. 7. Use the defroster or air conditioning to minimize fogging on the inside of the windows. CONTINGENCY SITUATIONS – CAUSES AND PREVENTION Contingency situations can arise at any time. A contingency situation is described as a possible future event, condition, or an unforeseen occurrence that may necessitate special measures. When they arise, normal traffic flow may be suddenly interrupted and the safety of all persons in the general area is diminished. Emergency vehicle operators must be familiar with contingency situations that occur most often, and to understand the actions that can be taken to minimize to reduce their impact. Five common contingency situations are: 1. Vehicle malfunction or component failure – Thorough pre-trip inspections are the key to reducing roadside emergencies. Inspect the vehicle at the beginning of every shift and note any deficiencies. Correct any deficiencies that are easily fixed in the station. MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 32 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 2. Change or deterioration in the road – The key to managing changing road conditions is to expand your look ahead distance to recognize approaching hazards. Remain alert, scan well ahead, and look for clues like construction signs or skid marks on the road. Operators must also remain aware of projects or existing conditions in their response district so they can anticipate poor conditions. 3. Obstacle in the roadway – Be prepared for an appearance of obstacles in the road (e.g. pedestrians, other vehicles, animals, etc.). In congested urban areas anticipate hazards appearing from side streets, alleys, parking garage exits, or between parked vehicles. Rural roads present more opportunities for animals or debris to enter the roadway. 4. Weather change – The DC Metro area presents widely varying and sometimes unpredictable weather conditions. Cold weather brings ice or snow. Summer storms bring the threat of hydroplaning and debris from high winds. 5. Driver error, inattention, and inexperience – Fatigue is a significant factor for drivers operating on shift work. Operators must determine for themselves when they are too tired, too sick, too stressed, or otherwise physically or psychologically unprepared to operate an emergency vehicle. HANDLING CONTINGENCY SITUATIONS Emergency vehicle operators must be prepared to encounter unusual situations or conditions. The nature of the vehicles combined with the environment offer endless variables that impact safe operations. Evasive steering and skidding often occur when avoiding pedestrians, animals, vehicles, or other obstacles. These reactions usually occur because the driver either failed to recognize an impending hazard or the hazard appeared so suddenly that it was unavoidable. A driver in this situation needs to weigh the risk versus reward of their action. Is it worth risking loss of control of the vehicle to avoid a collision with a small animal? The vehicle driver must constantly scan ahead and to the sides of their vehicle to identify escape routes in the event that braking is not going to avoid a collision. Beware that the crest of a hill, curves, and intersections limit your ability to identify escape routes and therefore reduce your options. When braking will not avoid a collision, evasive steering may be employed to avoid or minimize the impact of a collision. Operators need to become accustomed to maintaining their hands at the 9 and 3 o’clock position on the steering wheel. This will allow the largest possible turn without moving the hands. The 10 and 2 o’clock positions are more comfortable, but the 9 and 3 o’clock position allows maximal directional control. Evasive steering occurs in two phases; to avoid a collision, turn the steering wheel sharply in the direction of the escape route and then counter steer as soon as the vehicle is clear of the obstacle. If a collision is unavoidable, choose an object with which to collide. When facing such a choice, the operator must rapidly decide which course and object(s) will result in the least severe collision. Head-on collisions are the most MCFRS Driver Certification Program Page 33 of 38 Engine – Module 1  Rev. 4/4/19 damaging collisions because the entire force of the striking vehicle is applied to the fixed object. A sideswiping or indirect collision allows the energy of the collision to dissipate over a long distance since the vehicle remains in motion. Impact absorbing objects are better to choose than large immobile items that will not “give”. Some examples of impact absorbing objects are parked cars, bushes and shrubs, guardrails, and small signs. Examples of nonimpact-absorbing objects include bridge abutments, retaining walls, buildings, large trees, and utility poles. In addition to evasive steering, there are two other forms of maneuvering to avoid collisions – emergency braking and evasive acceleration. Emergency braking – The goal for emergency braking is to produce the shortest possible stopping distance without locking the wheels or losing control. The threshold braking method for accomplishing this is hard pressure to the brake pedal without locking the wheels. Modulate the pressure on the pedal. Apply steady pressure to the point of locking, and then release pressure slightly to get rolling traction. If the wheels lock, release the brake pedal. A vehicle with ABS does not require threshold braking because the computer will not allow the brakes to lock up; a steady pressure should be maintained on the pedal. Remember that a rapid stop could cause a rear-end collision; however, this is more preferable than hitting a pedestrian. Remember the action vs. outcome formula. Evasive acceleration – Evasive acceleration means a quick burst of speed. It can be used to avoid collision with side approaching or merging vehicles. When a vehicle is approaching from the side or merging, increasing speed can often avoid a side impact collision. HANDLING SKIDS While weather or road conditions may increase the