Lecture 1 -- Introduction and History of Civil Engineering PDF

Lecture 1 -- Introduction and History of Civil Engineering Definitions\ **Civil Engineering**\ - An engineer trained in the design and construction of public works, such as bridges, dams, and other large facilities. **Architecture\ **- Art and science of designing buildings for human habitation....

Lecture 1 -- Introduction and History of Civil Engineering Definitions\ **Civil Engineering**\ - An engineer trained in the design and construction of public works, such as bridges, dams, and other large facilities. **Architecture\ **- Art and science of designing buildings for human habitation. Beginnings\ Architecture was born when people began\ to live in constructed dwellings and within\ communities after using caves as habitats. Building Materials Materials were chosen based on availability and climate. - Greece consists almost entirely of limestone with many sources of fine marble. Therefore many Greek structures were constructed with limestone and marble. - Ruins of Babylon (present day Iraq). All that remains of the famous city-state is a mound of broken mud- brick dwellings. - Wood was readily available in China. Traditional Chinese wooden architecture\ changed little over thousands of years. - View of the city of Machu Picchu constructed from stone cut from the surrounding mountains. **Vernacular Architecture** - African Hut at Bana, a small village of Cameroon - An igloo, an Inuit winter dwelling\ Methods of construction that use locally available resources and traditions to address local needs. - Apache wickiup built of brush,\ grass, or reed - Traditional Nepalese house built\ of stone and clay - Southern African rondavel (or banda) - The Pyramids \- Stepped Pyramid \- Great Pyramid of Khufu \- Bearing Wall \- Kukulkan\'s Pyramid - Modern Pyramids - The Parthenon - Arches - The Vault - Domes - Pantheon - Colosseum - Great Wall of China - Water supply - Road System - Early Bridge Designs \- Pons Sublicius in Rome - Roman Bridges \- Roman bridge in Vaison la Romaine, south France\ -A Roman bridge crosses the Afrin River in northern Syria and is still in use today. - After the Fall of Rome \- The first arch bridge in the world to be made out of cast iron, a material which was previously far too expensive to use for large structures. - Iron and Steel \- Perhaps the best known structural steel framed building is the Empire State Building, completed in 1931 - Reinforced Concrete \- The Burj Khalifa (United Arab Emirates) is the tallest man- made structure ever built. It is supported by a reinforced concrete core using a special concrete mix. - Reinforced Concrete Bridges \- Cedar Avenue Bridge (actually carrying Tenth Street) in Minneapolis, MN over the Mississippi is a reinforced concrete open spandrel arch bridge. LECTURE 2 - SUB-DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING **Architectural Engineering**\ Also known as Building Engineering\ Application of engineering principles and technology to building design and construction\ An engineer in the structural, mechanical, electrical, construction or other engineering fields of building design and construction who works with other engineers and architects for the designing and construction of buildings **Urban Engineering\ ** Or Municipal Engineering\ Concerned with urban/municipal infrastructure This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining streets, sidewalks, water supply networks, sewers, street lighting, municipal solid waste management and disposal, storage depots for various bulk materials used for maintenance and public works, public parks and cycling infrastructure. History:\ "Modern municipal engineering finds its origin in the 19th century United Kingdom, following the Industrial Revolution and the growth of large industrial cities. The threat to urban populations from epidemics of waterborne diseases such as cholera and typhus lead to the development of a profession devoted to 'sanitary science' that later became 'municipal engineering'". "In 1984 the Institution of Municipal Engineers merged with the Institution of Civil Engineers."\ "Since 1970, there has been a global trend toward increasing privatisation and outsourcing of municipal engineering services." International Organization\ - International Federation Municipal Engineering (IFME)\ - Compromising professional municipal engineers from all round of the\ world\ - Mission: to connect municipal engineers, public works of professionals, public agencies, institutions and businesses around the world in order that they can share a global pool of knowledge and experience.\ - Aim: to foster continued improvement in the quality of public works and wider community services Related Engineering Disciplines:\ - Water Resources Engineering\ - Transportation Engineering\ - Environmental Engineering **Water Resources Engineering\ (Hydraulic Engineering)\ ** Concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water and sewage.\ Related to the design of bridges, dams, channels, canals, and levees, and to both sanitary and environmental engineering. Application of fluid mechanics principles to problems dealing with the collection, storage, control, transport, regulation, measurement, and use of water.\ "The hydraulic engineer actually develops conceptual designs for the various features which interact with water such as spillways and outlet works for dams, culverts for highways, canals and related structures for irrigation\ projects, and cooling-water facilities for thermal power plants." Fundamental principles:\ - Fluid mechanics\ - Fluid flow\ - Behavior of real fluids\ - Hydrology\ - Pipelines\ - Open channel hydraulics\ - Mechanics of sediment transport\ - Physical modeling\ - Hydraulic machine\ - Drainage hydraulics History\ - Earliest uses were to irrigate crops and dates back to the Middle East and Africa.\ - Water clock was used in 2nd millennium BC \- Using gravity to move water include the Qanat system in Ancient Persia, Turpan water system in China and irrigation canal in Peru. **Transportation Engineering\ ** Or Transport Engineering\ Application of technology and scientific principles to the planning, functional design, operation and management of facilities for any mode of transportation in order to provide\ for the safe, efficient, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and environmentally compatible movement of people and goods (transport). Six divisions related according to ASCE (1987) which is 1/3 of the total 18 divisions:\ - Aerospace\ - Air transportation\ - Highway\ - Pipeline\ - Waterway\ - Port\ - Coastal and Ocean\ - Urban Transportation The planning aspects involves elements of urban\ planning, technical forecasting decisions and political\ factors. Technical forecasting of passenger travel usually involves an urban transportation planning model, requiring the estimation of trip generation, trip distribution, mode choice and route assignment. Inventories help the engineer create business models to complete accurate forecasts of future conditions of system\ Reviews:\ 1. Population\ 2. Land use\ 3. Economic activity\ 4. Transportation facilities/services\ 5. Travel patterns and volumes\ 6. Laws and ordinances\ 7. Regional financial resources\ 8. Community values and expectations Highway Engineering specialize with the ff:\ - Handle the planning, design, construction, and operation of highways, roads and other vehicular facilities as well as their related bicycle and pedestrian realms\ - Estimate the transportation needs of the public and then secure the funding for the project\ - Analyze locations of high traffic volumes and high collision for safety and capacity\ - Use civil engineering principles to improve the transportation system\ - Utilizes three design controls which are the drivers, the vehicles, and the roadways themselves. Professional Societies:\ - Young Professional in Transportation (YPT)\ - Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE)\ - American Society for Highway Engineering (ASHE)\ - American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)\ - The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)\ - Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies (EASTS)\ - Transportation Science Society of the Philippines (TSSP) **Environmental Engineering**\ Application of scientific and engineering principles for protection of human populations from the effects of adverse environmental factors; protection of environments, both local and global, from the potentially deleterious\ effects of natural and human activities; and improvement of environmental quality. Applied science and technology that addresses the issue of energy preservation, production asset, and control of waste from human and\ animal activities.\ It involves public health, waste water management, air pollution control, recycling, waste disposal, radiation protection, industrial hygiene, environmental sustainability and environmental engineering law. It can be either department of civil engineering or chemical engineering.\ Environmental "civil engineers" focus on the following:\ - Hydrology\ - Water resources management\ - Bioremediation\ - Water treatment plant design **Structural Engineering**\ Trained to understand and calculate the stability, strength and rigidity of built structures for buildings and non- building structures. To develop designs and integrate their design with that of other designers, and to supervise construction of projects on site.\ They can be also involved in the design of machinery, medical equipment, vehicles, etc. where structural integrity affects functioning and safety. Structural engineering theories is based upon applied physical laws and empirical knowledge of the structural performance of different materials and geometries.\ Responsible for making creative and efficient use of funds, structural elements and materials to achieve these goals. HISTORY\ - In 2700 B.C.E. when the step pyramid for Pharoah Djoser was built in Imhotep, the first engineer in history known by name HISTORY\ - 1452-1519 Leonardo da Vinci -- Milan Cathedral\ - 1638 Galileo Galilei "Two New Science" --failure of simple structures\ - 1660 Robert Hooke "Hooke's Law"\ - 1687 Isaac Newton "Newton's law of motion"\ - 1750 Euler-Bernoulli beam equation\ - 1700-1782 Daniel Bernoulli "Principle of virtual work" \- 1707-1783 Leonhard Euler "Theory of buckling of columns"\ - 1873 Carlo Alberto Castigliano "Method of the least work"\ - 1874 Otto Mohr "formalized idea of indeterminate structures" OTHER SPECIALIZATION:\ - Earthquake engineering\ - Façade engineering\ - Fire engineering\ - Roof engineering\ - Tower engineering\ - Wind engineering STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS\ - Columns\ - Beams\ - Plates\ - Arches\ - Shell\ - Catenaries COMMONSTRUCTURAL MATERIALS\ - Iron: Wrought Iron, Cast Iron\ - Concrete: Reinforced Concrete, Prestressed concrete\ - Alloy: Steel, Stainless steel\ - Masonry\ - Timber: Hardwood, Softwood\ - Aluminum\ - Composite materials: plywood\ - Other materials: Adobe, Bamboo, Carbon fiber, fiber reinforced plastic, mudbrick, roofing materials **Geotechnical Engineering**\ Branch of civil engineering concerned with the\ engineering behaviour of earth materials. Uses principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics to investigate subsurface conditions and materials\ Determine the relevant physical/mechanical and chemical properties of these materials\ Evaluate stability of natural slopes and man-made soil deposits\ Assess risks posed by site conditions\ Design earthworks and structure foundations\ Monitor site conditions, earthworks and foundation construction. HISTORY:\ - Used soil material for flood control, irrigation\ purposes, burial sites, building foundations, and as construction material for buildings. \- In 2000 BC: traces of dikes, dams and canals at Egypt, ancient Mesopotamia \- Several foundation related problems such as Leaning Tower of Pisa Soil properties: unit weight, porosity, void ratio, permeability, compressibility, shear strength and Atterberg limits\ Foundations: Shallow foundations, deep foundations, lateral earth support structures, earthworks, slope stabilization (geosynthetics) GEOSYNTHETICS -- use for drainage, filtration, reinforcement, separation and containment. **Earthquake Engineering**\ Interdisciplinary branch of engineering that designs and analyzes structures, such as buildings and bridges, with earthquakes. SEISMIC VIBRATION CONTROL\ 1. DRY-STONE WALLS CONTROL: Machu Picchu Temple of the Sun, Peru 2\. LEAD RUBBER BEARING -- base isolation employing heaving damper invented by Bill Robinson, a New Zealander 3\. TUNED MASS DAMPER -- huge concrete blocks mounted in skyscrapers or other structures and moved in opposition to the resonance frequency oscillations of the structures by means of some sort of spring mechanism. 4\. Building Elevation Control: pyramid shaped skyscrapers 5\. SIMPLE ROLLER BEARING 6\. SPRINGS-WITH-DAMPER BASE ISOLATOR **Materials Engineering**\ It involves protection and prevention of the materials. 1\. Ascertains that all materials incorporated into the work pass the requirements of the DPWH Standard Specifications for Highways, Bridges and Airports and to strictly comply with the schedule of Minimum Testing Requirements;\ 2. Advises the Project Engineer on the acceptance or rejection of construction materials intended for use in the project,\ based on test results;\ 3. Recommends to the Project Engineer remedial measures for the correction of unsatisfactory conditions of materials;\ 4. Checks/certifies design mixes prepared by contractors for concrete and bituminous mixtures; 5\. Acquaints himself fully with the standard procedures of sampling, testing and control;\ 6. Sees to it that the field laboratory is adequately equipped so that the progress of the work will not be impeded;\ 7. Keeps a record of the daily activities ready for inspection anytime; and\ 8. Submits within required time frame test reports and other pertinent documents. **Control Engineering**\ Branch of civil engineering discipline that applies control theory to design systems with desired behaviours.\ The practice uses sensors to measure the output performance of the device being controlled (often a vehicle) and those measurements can be used to give feedback to the input actuators that can make corrections toward desired performance. LECTURE 4 - SURVEYING What is **Surveying**? \> Is a technique, profession, and science of accurately determining the terrestrial or 3-dimensional positions of points and the distances (horizontal and vertical and angles (horizontal and vertical) between them. -   Is generally done by a practiced surveyor. -   The art and science of making measurements of the relative positions of natural and man-made features on the Earth\'s surface, and the presentation of this information either graphically or numerically. Why it is scientific? Because the use of mathematical techniques to analyze field data, accuracy and reliability depends on understanding underlying scientific principles and affecting survey measurement. Why it is art? Because only a surveyor who possesses thorough understanding of surveying techniques will be able to determine the most efficient methods required to obtain optimal results over a wide variety of surveving problems. Surveying \- the SCIENCE of determining the dimensions and contour of the earth\'s surface by measurement of distances, directions, and elevations. \- the ART of measuring horizontal and vertical distances between objects, of measuring angles between lines, of determining the direction of lines, and of establishing points by pre-determined angular and linear measurements. History of Surveying 1. Surveying had its beginning in Egypt about 1400 BC - The Egyptian phrase for a surveyor was a \"rope stretcher\" and surveying was known as \"stretching a rope\" - Egyptian surveyors main work was to relocate the land divisions (use for taxation). - Extensive use of surveying in building of Egyptian monuments 2. Greeks: expanded Egyptian work and developed Geometry - Developed one of the earliest surveying instruments Diopter (a form of level). 3. Romans: developed surveying into a science to create the Roman roads, aqueducts, and land division systems. Developed several instruments: - Groma - cross instrument used to determine lines and right angles - Libella - \"A\" framewith a plumb bob used for leveling - Chorobates - straight edge with oil in notch for leveling 4. Middle Ages: land division of Romans continued in Europe. Quadrans - square brass frame capable of turning angles up to 90° and has a graduated scale developed by an Italian named Von Piso. 5. History of Surveying 18th & 19th Century in the New World: the need for mapping and marking land claims caused extensive surveying, especially by the English. - 1785: United Stated began extensive surveys of public lands into one mile square sections \- 30 states surveyed under the U.S. Public Land System (also called the Rectangular System) - 1807: United States Geological Survey founded to establish an accurate control network and mapping  - Famous American Surveyors: George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, George Rogers Clark, Abe Lincoln and many more. Basic Principles of Surveying The following two basic principles should be considered while determining relative position of points on the surface of earth:- 1. Determining suitable method for locating a point: it is always practicable to select two points in the field to measure the distance between them. These can be represented on paper by two points placed in a convenient positions. 2. Working from whole to the part: In surveying an area, it is essential to establish first of all a system of control points with great precision. Minor control points can then be established by less precise method and the details can be located afterwards by method of triangulation or traversing between control points. Kinds of Surveys: - According to the space involved: - Geodetic Surveys - when surveys are such wide extent that the spheroidal shape of the earth is a matter of importance. - Plane Surveys - when they are such limited extent that the exact shape of the earth may be disregarded. PLANE SURVEYING - Surface of earth is considered as a plane and the spherical shape is neglected. - All survey line and triangles are considered as plane and straight. - Small area - Accuracy is low GEODETIC SURVEYING - spherical shape of earth taken into account. - Lines are considered curved and all triangles are considered as spherical triangles. - Large area - Accuracy is high CLASSIFICATION BASED ON NATURE OF FIELD OF SURVEY. 1. Land survey 2. Marine navigational and hydrographic survey 3. Astronomical survey CLASSIFICATION BASED ON OBJECT OF SURVEY 1. Geotechnical survey 2. Mine survey 3. Military survey 4. Control survey 5. Topographic survey 6. Cadastral survey 7. Route survey 8. Engineering survey 9. Construction survey CLASSIFICATION BASED ON INSTRUMENT USED 1. Chain survey 2. Compass survey 3. Plane table survey 4. Theodolite survey 5. Tacheometric survey CLASSIFICATION BASED ON METHOD EMPLOYED 1. Triangulation surveys 2. Traverse survey LECTURE 5 - TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Introduction\ ◼ How significant is transportation in our society?\ ◼ It impacts every facet of life: economic, social, recreational, cultural, etc.\ ◼ The efficient and safe movement of people and goods is important to our quality of life ◼ Given the significant impact that transportation has it is important for transportation engineers to strive toward two goals:\ 1. providing a high level of service (LOS, a term you will hear frequently later): minimize travel times and delays)\ 2. providing a high level of safety\ ◼ These goals are, unfortunately, usually mutually exclusive - e.g., higher speeds reduce travel time but may also decrease safety\ ◼ And the constraints ("rules") are constantly\ changing:\ - economic (the cost of highway related projects,\ construction/maintenance)\ - political (community-related impacts of projects)\ building a highway through the middle of a neighborhood (eminent domain)\ City council members disregarding advice of traffic engineer\ ◼ environmental (impact of projects on the environment measured in terms of air, water, and noise impacts, and quality of life) Challenges\ ◼In attempting to meet level of service and safety goals, transportation engineers must deal with both technical and behavioral challenges. - Travel behavior: Who, What, When, Where, Why, How humans move - How to ensure safe highways,\ etc. Infrastructure - Highway maintenance\ E.g. Ensure fix road damage, pavement overlay - Need methods to combat aging pavement, and design better ones - Need to make better use of existing infrastructure \- Plenty of capacity on a 24-hr basis\ - Make it possible to travel at various times,\ telecommuting, etc. \- Use of reversible lanes, etc Vehicle Technologies - Performance: acceleration, cornering,\ braking, etc - Motivation for vehicle advances \- air pollution and safety regulations\ - energy conservation and fuel price issues\ - foreign competition Traffic Control - Signal is most obvious device \- Timing strategies\ - New detection and signal controller technologies \- Actuated, coordinated control \- Increasing efficiency \- Safety is key issue at intersections due to the high number of conflicting movements \- Many agencies are actually going to a low-tech approach for traffic control: Roundabouts--- popular in many areas Behavioral Challenges\ ◼ Private vehicles, dominate traffic\ stream\ - Does offer the highest level of travel mobility (flexible departure times and destination choices) ◼ Transportation engineers need to be creative in the approaches to encourage usage of alternative modes, yet still give travelers reasonable departure time and destination options ◼ Demographic Trends\ - Suburban growth (lower housing prices,\ horse-acre lots, the highways, etc)\ - Suburb-to-suburb commutes (new employment centers, the highways)\ - Aging population, slower perception/reaction times Challenges\ ◼ Safety Trends\ - Involves both technical and behavioral components\ - Transportation engineers must strive to\ reduce frequency and severity of crashes\ Develop new roadway design guidelines,\ roadside safety equipment, countermeasures