Principles of Aquaculture (AQ-111) PDF

PRINCIPLES OF AQUACULTURE (1+1) developed for several marine fish, estuarine and fresh water fin fishes and shell Unit 1: Aquaculture – Basics and Scope fishes. Chapter 1: Aqu...

PRINCIPLES OF AQUACULTURE (1+1) developed for several marine fish, estuarine and fresh water fin fishes and shell Unit 1: Aquaculture – Basics and Scope fishes. Chapter 1: Aquaculture – Basics Fisheries is a sunrise sector in Indian agriculture, with high potentials for diversification of farming practices, rural and livelihood development, domestic 1.1.1. Introduction nutritional security, employment generation, export earnings as well as tourism. Aquaculture remains a growing, vibrant and important production sector for high  The possibilities extend from vast seas to high mountains with valued protein food. The reported global production of food fish from aquaculture, coldwater species. including finfishes, crustaceans, molluscs and other aquatic animals for human  Untapped potentials exist in island systems from ornamental fishes to value consumption, reached 52.5 million tonnes in 2008. The contribution of aquaculture added products. to the total production of capture fisheries and aquaculture continued to grow, rising  This sector provides employment opportunity to 5 million fisher peoples from 34.5 percent in 2006 to 36.9 percent in 2008. from coastal villages, major river basins and reservoirs in the country. Asia is in progressively dominant position in world aquaculture production. Asia The fish production in India has registered excellent growth in past half a accounted for 88.8 percent of world aquaculture production by quantity and 78.7 century from 0.75 million tons in1950s to 6.3 million tons in 2004. A particularly percent by value in 2008, while China ranks first in world aquaculture production significant progress in production is noticed from year 2001-2002 onwards. with 9.4 percent and India ranks second as world aquaculture producer with 7.1 The fisheries sector of India contributes Rs 268,500 million to the Gross percent by quantity (2008). Domestic Product (GDP) during 2002-03, which was 1.19% of the total GDP. The word “aquaculture” is defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization of Of the countries bordering Indian ocean, India is endowed with coastline the United Nations (FAO) as follows “Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic length of 8,129 km, 2.02 million sq km of Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) organisms including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants. comprising 0.86 million sq km on the East coast, 0.56 million sq km in the West Farming implies some sort of intervention in the rearing process to enhance coast and 0.60 million sq km around Andaman and Nicobar Island and 0.5 million sq production, such as regular stocking, feeding, protection from predators, etc. km of continental shelf with a annual catchable marine potential of 3.93 million tons. Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being Besides, there are vast brackish water areas all along the coast line which are cultivated. For statistical purposes, aquatic organisms which are harvested by an suitable for seafarming and mariculture. individual or corporate body which has owned them throughout their rearing period contribute to aquaculture” (FAO 1997b). 1.1.2 Objectives of aquaculture Current aquaculture technology allows the commercial and viable production of  Production of low cost protein rich, nutritive, palatable and easily digestible a number of organisms through the management of their entire life cycles. The human food. “seed” materials (larvae and juveniles) are produced under controlled conditions,  Providing new species and strengthening stocks of existing fish in natural starting from the maturation of broodstock, which eliminates the need for the and man-made water-bodies through artificial recruitment collection of juveniles from the wild.  Production of ornamental fish for aesthetic appeal. Aquaculture involves a thorough understanding of the behavior, habitat and  Effective utilization of aquatic and land resource environmental requirements, reproductive biology, nutritional requirements, and larval and juvenile physiology of each species, as well as its susceptibility to disease  Recycling of organic waste of human and livestock origin under culture conditions.  Providing means of livelihood through commercial and industrial Moreover, it involves the development of all aspects of fish husbandry, such as aquaculture. the facilities required for the various life-cycles stages like broodstock holding  Production of sportfish and support to recreational fishing. tanks/sea cages, nursery tanks/cages, grow-out facilities, feed development, fish  Production of bait-fish for commercial and sport fishery. handling systems, and disease control. Such procedures and techniques have been 1  In aquaculture, there are three categories of waters, viz. fresh, salt and brackish. total biomass production also varies from one system to the other. The selection of a Fresh waters, generally abounding in the inland areas of a country, and the salt water particular aquaculture system is based mainly on the geographic location, type of of the seas and oceans, are characteristed by a wide difference in their salinities water body, target aquatic species, availability of resources and skilled professionals, ranging from nil in the fresh water to nearly 35 ppt in the seas and ocean. The salt availability of seed of the target species at the desired time of stocking, apart from a content of fresh and sea water exercises a very selective influence on the fauna and set of different socioeconomic factors. flora that live in each type of water. Among all the aquatic organisms used for aquaculture, fishes have the dominant As far as finfish and shellfish are concerned, the normal residents of each type of share with respect to number of species and production in quantity and value. Fish water are said to be stenohaline, i.e. they can withstand only a narrow variation in culture may be undertaken in almost any kind of water (be it freshwater/brackish the salinities of their surrounding medium. A carp is an example of stenohaline water/ seawater or sewage water). A single species of fish may be selected for freshwater fish and a sardine or a mackerel may be cited as examples of stenohaline aquaculture or different combinations of compatible fish species may be utilized in saltwater fish. Brackish water normally naturally occurs in estuaries, deltas of rivers, order to produce more biomass. Fishes may be stocked in traditional community lagoons and backwaters, which everywhere in the world are under tidal regime. In ponds, without supplementing artificial food and not taking care of the water body. such habitats the salinity of the water fluctuates widely between 0 to 35 ppt, In order to get better return, however, modern aquaculture practices have relied depending on the phase of the tide and volume of fresh water discharged through the on intensification wherein very high stocking density of fishes are maintained on river into the sea. artificial feed and the water quality and environmental parameters are monitored to The finfish and shellfish that inhabit brackish waters are invariably euryhaline remain in the optimal range required for high growth rate of the fish. Fish culture i.e. they can withstands wide changes in salinity of the surrounding medium. may also be integrated with different crops or animals farming system. For example: Examples of euryhaline fish are a mullet (Mugil cephalus) and mud-skipper, (i) Suitable species of fish may be cultivated in the rice fields having sufficient water Periophthalmus and those of crustaceans are several species of penaeids (e.g. required for fish survival and growth. Penaeus monodon) and crab (e.g. Scylla serrata). (ii) The bunds of ponds may be utilized for agricultural activities or animal farming There are finfish and shellfish which spend different phases of their lives in sea, estuaries and freshwater streams. Such animals are either anadromous or Chapter 2: Aquaculture – Scope katadromous. Anadromous fishes are those that bread naturally in freshwater streams 1.2.2 Scope for Aquaculture in India but spend the middle years of their lives in the sea, like salmon and shad. The freshwater aquaculture systems in the country has primarily confined to Katadromous fishes show the opposite kind of life cycle as in eel they migrate river three Indian major carps, viz., rohu, catla and mrigala, with exotic species: silver to sea for breeding. carp, grass carp, and common carp forming the second important group. Among the There are forms which restrict their migration between fresh water sections of catfishes, magur (Clarias batrachus) has been the single species that has received the river and the estuary. Several species of palaeomonid prawns (Macrobrachium certain level of attention both from the researchers and from farmers due to its high rosenbergi; M. vollenhovenii) are examples of shellfish which undergo such a life consumer preference, high market value and most importantly its suitability for cycle. These forms breed in estuaries but spend the mid-years of their live in fresh farming in shallow and derelict water bodies with adverse ecological conditions. waters. Recent years, however witnessed increasing interest for farming of Then, there are forms which migrate back and forth between the estuary or a Pangasius spp., especially in Koleru lake region of Andhra Pradesh due to its higher lagoon and the sea in different phases of their lives. A mullet (e.g. Mugil cephalus) growth potential and ready market. Other potential species include Labeo calbasu, or a shrimp (e.g. Penaeus mododon, P. notialis) are examples of finfish and shellfish Labeo gonius Labeo bata, Labeo dussumeri, Labeo fimbriatus, Barbodes carnaticus, which show such a pattern of migration. Puntius pulchellus, Puntius kolus, Puntius sarana, and Cirrhinus cirrhosa. Over the years, the enormous increase in the growth rate of aquaculture has been Some of these species are being cultured at a very low level in different parts in response to declines in commercial harvests of wild stocks of fish and shellfish. of the country, mostly based on wild seed collection. The freshwater air-breathing Each type of the system of aquaculture has its own specific set of conditions and the and non air-breathing species, Channa marulius, Channa striatus, Channa punctatus, 2 Channa gachua, Channa stewartii have not been taken up for the aquaculture Unit 2: History of Aquaculture activities in serious way. With the technology available for seed production and Chapter 1. History of Aquaculture culture of air breathing (Clarias batrachus, Heteropneustes fossilis) and non air breathing catfish like (Wallago attu, Mystus seenghala, Mystus aor, Horabagrus 2.1.1. Introduction brachysoma, Pangasius pangasius), scientific organized catfish farming can be taken It is only within recent period when means of communication and up in extensive and semi intensive way (Ponniah and Sundaray, 2008). transportation and exchanges beyond continental and national boundaries were The giant freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii has been the possible that aquaculture development has become unified, intensified and in some principal species, adopted both under monoculture and under mixed farming of cases, integrated. There are at least 4 theories that may explain the beginnings of freshwater prawn production of about 43,000 tonnes in the country at present. aquaculture. These are described as follows However, M.malcomsonii and M. gangeticum have not been taken up in a big way 2.1.2. Oxbow theory In the brackishwater sector, the aquaculture development is mostly contributed by shrimp, Penaeus monodon culture only. The other shrimp species like In inland areas rivers, in the course of time, develop curves and oxbows Fenneropenaeus indicus, Fenneropenaeus merguiensis, Penaeus pencillatus, which, due to naturaltopography and physiography of the area, may further result Marsupenaeus japonicus and Penaeus semisulcatus are not cultured on a commercial into long, windingoxbows of varying sizes. As time went on, under varying flood level large-scale culture. Recently Fenneropenaeus vannamie culture is developing levels thatoccurred in different years such rivers may have changed their courses, in India. The finfish species like the seabass (Lates calcarifer) and grouper leavingbehind the formed oxbows together with the fish and other living organisms (Epinephelus spp.), grey mullet (Mugil cephalus), pearl-spot (Etroplus suratensis), in them. milk fish (Chanos chanos) which are promising and ideal for aquaculture has not Human population along the rivers, who by adaptation are naturalfishermen, been exploited. discovered a good harvest of fish could be derived from thesenaturally formed The potential marine finfish species are Epinephelus malabaricus, oxbows. It was also found that seasonal flooding of thesewater areas restocked them Epinephelus coioides, Epinephelus tauvina, Epinephelus fuscoguttatus, Epinephelus with fish which again could be harvestable duringthe ensuing dry season. Taking full polyphekadion, Cromileptis altivelis, Rachycentron canadum, Seriola advantage of this occurrence, enterprising individuals in the surrounding quinqueradiata, Trachinotus blochii, Coryphaena hippurus, Psettodes erumei, communities would begin to improve theembankments, enclosing such oxbow areas. Lutjanus argentimaculatus, and Pampus argenteus. Mariculture is expected to be a Subsequently, in addition to theseasonal natural stock of fish that enter the modified major activity in the Indian coastal areas in the years to come. Given the wide oxbows, additional stockmay be planted, thus starting aquaculture management in spectrum of cultivable species and technologies available, the long coastline and them. This continued untill complete aquaculture management was attained. favorable climate, mariculture is likely to generate considerable interest among the 2.1.3. Catch-and-hold theory coastal population and entrepreneurs. Fish and other aquatic products have always been held in high esteem by the In the present era of food insecurity, aquaculture shows enormous potential early rulers of big empires. At the same time, it was a practice to build water areas as to feed not only the ever increasing human population but also the aquaculture source of water, recreation, ora means of defense around castles. Such water areas products can be utilized as a feed ingredient in the diets of different domesticated were not really intended for rearing fish but some of the rulers demanded fish, animals of high commercial value. The aquaculture sector has become a modern, regardless of the season so that the responsible officers around these rulers had to dynamic industry that produces safe, high valuable and high quality products, and provide means to obtain fish even during winter. has developed the means to be environmentally sustainable Sustainable aquaculture is currently the need in India as elsewhere. Eco-friendly aquaculture in harmony Due to this necessity, the practice has developed to stock fish caught from with environmental and socioeconomic needs of the society has to be evolved. natural waters into the water are as constructed around castles or communities. As it turned out, some of the fish stocked in these artificial waters were able to survive and grow. In the course of time, the species that survived and grow such as the common carp were selected for this catch-and-hold system of providing fish. As a 3 further development,stocking of the right amount and kind of fish and feeding them areas declined. Therefore, instead of harvesting at each periodic tide fluctuations, the when necessary also developed resulting in actual aquaculture practice. The barricade to the watered area was kept in place for sometime, say, one to three monasteries of Europe and the palaces of emperors and other rulers exemplified this months before the fish that have entered have grown to good size. This chronology type of venue for aquaculture development. of development was what actually happened in the development of brackish water aquaculture which probably began in Indonesia and spread to the Philippines, and 2.1.4. Concentration theory later into Thailand, Malaysia,India and other areas in the world. Many tropical areas of the world are affected by monsoons, one bringing Chapter 2. Aquaculture development history strong rainswith some floods and the other the dry season. During the rainy system, therivers which provided the waterways get swollen and if the watershed 2.2.1. 2000–1000 B.C wasextensive, wide-level lowland places were likewise flooded. Extensive Chinese aquaculturist, considered the earliest beginners of aquaculture as marshlands rich in vegetation and aquatic organisms, including fish, providedwide during the period 2000–1000 B.C. This indicated that aquaculture has a long history and favorable habitat for growth and reproduction during the flood seasonof the dating as far as 4000 years ago. China was the cradle of the beginning of aquaculture year. utilizing mainly the common carp (Cyprinus carpio). When the rainy season decreases until it finally stops, the waterin these floodlands also gradually receded. As the dry season progressed, thewater further 2.2.2. 500 B.C. (473 B.C. or 475 B.C.) receded, draining almost all the flood plains but leaving only spots of deep areas and This year is considered of very great significance in the history of the rivers with water. These resulted in the concentration of the fish that have grown aquaculture. Many authors round the year as 500 B.C. although most agree that the and reproduced during the wet seasoninto the watered depressions or back into the exact year is 475 B.C. and someeven use 473 B.C. as the period when Fan Lai wrote rivers. Fishermen from the surrounding communities catch fish from these his book, “The Classic of Fish Culture”. This book contains the earliest monograph concentrated depressions. At the beginning, most of the fish were caught without of, fish culture. Although the narrative also dealt on fantasies and metaphysical regard to size or kind. Lateron, the small ones were left behind or gathered and aspects, it is the first to record and describe the structure of ponds, the method of transferred to other rearing areas. If suitable, some of these depressions would be propagation of the common carp and the growth of fry. provided with embankments in which culture of suitable fish stock in them was conducted, thus starting aquaculture management which began through the 2.2.3. 500 B.C.- 500 A.D. concentration version. This period can be considered the Golden Age of common carp culture 2.1.5. Trap-and-croptheory which has continued to develop in China as well as in neighboring countries where the Chinese people migrated or have some form of foreign relations. Not only is While the first three theories have been observed as developments from actual progress attained in the techniques of culture but also scattered records of the inland freshwater areas, this fourth development is characteristic of brackish and culture systems were made during this period. At about this time in the Indian sub- marine areas affected by tidal fluctuations. Coastal areas usually abound with coves, continent, specifically during the period 321 to 300 B.C., the use of reservoirs to lagoons, permanent ponds, enclosed swamps or even depressions which were hold fish was first described. periodically watered and fully or partially drained during ordinary or extreme low tides. The coastal communities in these types of water areas have long realized that 2.2.4. 618 to 906 A.D. (Tang Dynasty in China) these areas were regularly stocked with fin-fish, crustaceans, molluscs and other The reign of the Tang Dynasty is particularly significant in the history of aquatic economic resources naturally found in these waters. world aquaculture. The Tang emperor in China had the family name of Li which With this knowledge, they started to install traps that would block the exit of happened to be the common name of the widely-cultivated common carp. Because these fish and crustaceans that may have entered the water area during a flood tide.A of this coincidence, an imperial decree was issued prohibiting the culture as well as fisherman realized that by this management, he could be regularly be provided with other activities connected with this fish. This decree, however, instead of putting a fish for his table and some extra for the market. As time developed, however, and as constraint to the development of aquaculture turned to be a blessing in disguise. The more fishermen fish in the surrounding waters, the amount trapped in these water 4 Chinese people who were then at the time very much engrossed in fish culture as a they were not used for fish culture. Subsequently, however, they were initially used source of food and livelihood, looked for other species of fish for pond culture. to hold fish and later on to culture them. This resulted in the discovery of the silver carp, the big-head carp, the grass Indonesia carp and the mud carp, all very suitable pond culture species. It was also found that The early development of brackish water aquaculture is attributed to this when raised in polyculture in the same pond, these species complement each other country at the beginning of the 15th century. This initiative was spread to by eating different types of food and staying in different environmental strata within neighboring areas including the Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand and southern parts of China (Taiwan). the pond. This led not only in the discovery of new species for culture but also in maximizing the productivity of freshwater pond culture. Europe Aquaculture in Europe also started during early period. Palaces of the early 2.2.5. 906 to 1900 A.D. rulers, as well as temples and monasteries of the religious, were provided with water areas. Later on, these were used for temporary holding of fish and subsequently, they 1906 to 1120 (Sung Dynasty) were used as environment for the culture of fish. Common carp and trout were The initiative to collect fry of cultivable species seasonally along the rivers recorded as the major species. was started during the Tang Dynasty as a result of the prohibition decree on the North America common carp, Systematic fry collection and dispersal in natural waters was highly There were attempts to develop aquaculture during the 19th century developed during following period under the Sung Dynasty, At about this time in specially aimed at the development of sport fishing. A book, A Manual of Fish India, the published work Namasollasa presented a compilation describing the Culture, was published by the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries in fattening of fish in reservoirs. 1897. This dealt mainly on established hatcheries for the production of seeds to 1368 to 1644 (Ming Dynasty) stock game waters but also includes some food species of finfish, oysters, clams, etc. It was during the Ming period that works describing the complete Africa aquaculture process were detailed. Methods for culturing fry to adult, the structure of There were earlier attempts mainly from Europe to spread aquaculture in ponds, rearing density, polyculture, stocking/catching rotation, application of food African countries. The presence of extensive flood plains provided environment for and fertilizer and disease control were dealt with in aquaculture works during this growth and reproduction of indigenous species during the rainy season and period. In the year 1400 brackishwater aquaculture was recorded as having been concentrating them in depressions or marshes during the dry season. This stimulated started in Indonesia. the early beginnings of aquaculture in this continent. At the present time, many 1644 to 1911 (Ching Dynasty) initiatives for aquaculture development are being started in several countries in During this period, further detailed description of fish culture methods were Africa. The tilapia, common carp and catfish are the selected species for culture. emphasized. This included fry production, season of occurrence of fry, Earlier the seeds or fry were collected from wild waters for culture. The differentiation and separation of fry and transport. urgent need for seeds to fill the expanded aquaculture industry resulted in technology breakthroughs in induced spawning of cultivable species during the 2.2.6. Developments in other areas period from 1700 to 1900. In this period the cultivated Asian carps and the Indian French Indochina major carps were induced to spawn under controlled conditions. Likewise the penaeid shrimp species and the giant freshwater prawns used in culture were also In the French Indochinese countries, the waves of Chinese migration had hatched under control in hatcheries. influenced the development of aquaculture. Due to the indigenous species in this area cage culture of siluroids and related species developed independently and From 1970 developments in aquaculture was continuous more species were became a distinct aquaculture practice in this area. This practice has continued up to brought into culture. The industry continued to expand both in area and in quantity the present time (e.g. cage culture along Mekong River in Kampuchea). of production. A new trend to select species that are most profitable to culture was adopted by operators in the industry. Therefore, high value species especially those Sub-continent of India with high export demand were emphasized. Penaeid shrimps, high value finfishes The practice of building water reservoirs of varying sizes as source of water (Seabass/groupers), seaweeds and related species became important aquaculture and for religious purposes, started at very early period in this area. At the beginning, items. As demand and high market value for selected species persisted, high 5 technology methods and intensification of operations became the norm of the pertaining to fish and shrimp farming, however, scientific and commercial culture at industry. There is competition for major markets and maintenance of product quality present is restricted to farming of shrimps. standards also became a major concern. The earliest attempt on mariculture in India was made at the Mandapam 2.2.7. History of Aquaculture in India centre of CMFRI in 1958–1959 with the culture of milkfish (Chanos chanos). CMFRI has developed various technologies for a number of species including Occurrence of fish in India dates back to three millennium BC. Fish remains oysters, mussels and clams among sedentary species, as well as for shrimp and and cut marks have been obtained from evacuations at Mohenjodero and Harappa of finfish. CMFRI initiated a pearl culture program in 1972 and successfully developed Indus Valley Civilization (2500 BC – 1500 BC) indicates utilization of fish as food. the technology for pearl production in Indian pearl oysters. In India Kautilya, in his “Artha Shastra” written around 300 B.C. described how fish could be poisonous in tanks during war. King Someswara son of king Vikramaditya 2.2.8. Current global aquaculture scenario VI was the first to record the common sport fishes of India and group them into The total world fish production was recorded about 142 million tones in marine and freshwater forms in his book Manasoltara compiled in 1127 AD. During 2008 from both capture fisheries and aquaculture. Of this, 115 million tonnes was British rule in India, they developed sport fisheries through the introduction of trouts used as human food, with a capita consumption of about 17 kgs. In the total fish in the hill streams of Nilgris, Kashmir and Kulu valley. production 46 percent was contributed through aquaculture, representing a With the formation of fisheries departments, the culture of food fishes and continuing increase from 43 percent in 2006. The global fish production through sport fishes received encouragements. The first scientifically designed fish farm was aquaculture was 52.5 million tonnes in 2008. constructed by the then Madras fisheries department at Sunkesula in Krishna district Aquaculture sector maintained an average annual growth rate of 8.3 percent (now Andhra Pradesh) during 1911. Fisheries Departments were established for worldwide between 1970 and 2008. Globally, fish provides more than 1.5 billion development of aquaculture in West Bengal, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, people with almost 20 percent of their average per capita intake of animal protein, and Karnataka during 1908-1947. and 3.0 billion people with at least 15 percent of such protein. In earlier days fry were collected from wild waters for culture. The urgent Among all fish producing countries China remains the largest fish-producer, need for seeds to fill the expanding aquaculture industry resulted in technology with production of 47.5 million tonnes in 2008 (32.7 and 14.8 million tonnes from breakthroughs in induced spawning of cultivable species during the period from aquaculture and capture fisheries, respectively). Asia has retained its progressively dominant position in world aquaculture production. 1700 to 1900. Asia accounted for 88.8 percent of world aquaculture production by quantity Indian scientists achieved the first success in induced breeding of Indian and 78.7 percent by value in 2008, while China alone accounted for 62.3 percent of major carp through hypophysation in 1957 and Chinese succeeded in Chinese carp world aquaculture production by quantity and 51.4 percent by value in the same year in 1958. Likewise the penaeid shrimp species and the giant freshwater prawns used. Totally 44.9 million people were directly employed and engaged, in capture in culture were also hatched under control in hatcheries. fisheries or in aquaculture, of this at least 12 percent of these were women. The The development of freshwater aquaculture in the country became primary and secondary fisheries sectors support the livelihoods of a total of about established following the establishment of the Pond Culture Division at Cuttack in 540 million people, or 8.0 percent of the total world population. 1949 under the name of the Center of Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute 2.2.9. Current Indian aquaculture scenario (CIFRI), West Bengal. India is an important aquaculture country in the world. The fish production Whereas Brackishwater farming in India is an age-old system confined in India has registered excellent growth in past half a century from 0.75 million tons mainly to the bheries (manmade impoundments in coastal wetlands) of West Bengal in1950s to around 7.5 million tons in 2008. To the fisheries sector of India, capture and pokkali (salt resistant deepwater paddy) fields along the Kerala coast, without fisheries contributes around 4.1 million tons and aquaculture contributes around 3.4 additional input, except that of trapping the naturally bred juvenile fish and shrimp million tons. In aquaculture, production of carp from freshwater and shrimps from seed. brackishwater form the major aquaculture activity. The importance of brackishwater aquaculture was recognised only after the The three Indian major carps, namely catla ( Catla catla ), rohu ( Labeo initiation of an All India Coordinated Research Project, (AICRP) on 'Brackishwater rohita ) and mrigal ( Cirrhinus mrigala ) contribute the bulk of production with over Fish Farming' by ICAR in 1973. The project developed several technologies 1.8 million tonnes (FAO, 2003); followed by silver carp, grass carp and common carp. 6  Chapter 3. Aquaculture Vs Agriculture AQUACULTURE AGRICULTURE Aquaculture may simply be referred as ‘Underwater Agriculture’. Over the Agriculture in India has a long history , dating back to ten thousand years. years, the enormous increase in the growth rate of aquaculture has been in response Agriculture has begun by 9000 BC as a result of early cultivation of plants, and to declines in commercial harvests of wild stocks of fish and shellfish. Top domestication of crops and animals. Due to agriculture, settled life style was aquaculture producers in 2008 were China with 62 percent of world aquaculture development soon followed by improvements in agriculture implements and production of fish, crustaceans and molluscs (32.7 million tonnes). Other countries techniques paved way for development of agriculture in India and the prevailed producing over one million tonnes in the same year are India (3.5 million tonnes), double monsoons led to two harvests being reaped in one year. Vietnam (2.5 million tonnes), Indonesia (1.7 million tonnes), Thailand (1.4 million Today, India ranks second worldwide in farm output. Agriculture and allied tonnes) and Bangladesh (1 million tonnes). sectors like forestry and logging accounted for 16.6% of the GDP in 2007, employed Carps are the most cultured species in the world with 39 percent of 52% of the total workforce. Agriculture is the largest economic sector and plays a production by volume. Other major groups cultured include shellfishes (oysters, significant role in the overall social-economic development of India. India is among clams, mussels and scallops), other freshwater fish includes tilapias, followed by the world’s leading producers of paddy rice, wheat, buffalo milk, cow milk and shrimps, prawns and salmons. At single species value level, white leg shrimp sugar cane. It is also the second largest producer of wheat and cow milk. The top generated the highest value (USD 9 billion) in 2008, followed by Atlantic salmon three agricultural products produced in the world are wheat, cow milk and cattle (USD 7.2 billion), grass carp (USD 4.8 billion), silver carp (USD 4.8 billion). meat and top producers of these products are China for wheat and USA for both cow India is a major maritime state and an important aquaculture country in the milk and cattle meat. world. It is also home for more than 10% of global fish biodiversity. India has The Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), established in 1905, was achieved considerable production increases in aquaculture, especially in the responsible for the research leading to the " Indian Green Revolution " of the 1970s. production of freshwater fishes and shrimps. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is the apex body in agriculture While progress in research and development of new technologies have and related allied fields, including research and education. The Union Minister of already made in mollusk culture, seaweed culture, and in culture of certain marine Agriculture is the President of the ICAR. The Indian Agricultural Statistics Research fishes like seabass these have not yet taken off on commercial scale. The production Institute develops new techniques for the design of agricultural experiments, gap in aquaculture between China and India or other important Asian countries are analyses data in agriculture, and specializes in statistical techniques for animal and very wide, so effective utilization of the diversity of our marine living resources for plant breeding. India ’s agricultural sector has made long steps in developing its potential. aquaculture, in the long coastline will increase Indian aquaculture production. The green revolution massively increased the production of vital food grains and Advantages of aquaculture introduced technological innovations into agriculture. This progress is clearly shown  Aquaculture is the important source of excellent quality protein and healthy in India’s net trade position. Where once India had to depend on imports to feed its oils people, since 1990 it is a net exporter of agri-food products. Its agriculture is large  Future for fish production is dependent on aquaculture and diverse and its sheer size means that even slight changes in its trade have significant effects on world agricultural markets.  Due to production of fish at low cost, it can be supplied at an affordable price In the current agriculture system constrains like frequent failure of monsoon, even to poorer peoples increase in the investment of the agricultural inputs, lack of man power and less  Cultured fishes are safe from captured fish because cultured fishes are free profit from the agriculture business has made agriculture a lest area of interest in from pollutants terms of business and growing trend of converting agricultural lands for real estate  Aquaculture provides good quality food for the growing population business also reduce agricultural activities in India. Overall food supply of this world is depending on agriculture is possible by achieving higher production by reducing  Increases employment opportunity the investments upon the inputs. 7 Disadvantages of aquaculture  Brackishwater farming  The infrastructure development for aquaculture will affect the local flora and  Marinewater farming fauna like wetlands and mangroves On the basis of intensity  The untreated effluent discharged with heavy organic load will adversely  Extensive fish farming system affect the local ecosystem  Semi-intensive fish farming system  Farming of exotic species would bring with new pathogen to the new  Intensive fish farming system environment On the basis of fish species  Disease and parasite transfer from captive stock to wild  Monoculture In the present era of food insecurity, aquaculture shows enormous potential to feed not only the ever increasing human population but also the aquaculture products can  Polyculture be utilized as a feed ingredient in the diets of different domesticated animals of high On the basis of enclosure commercial value. The global developments and the strategic importance of  Pond culture aquaculture in terms of food security contribute to give aquaculture a promising future. The aquaculture sector has become a modern, dynamic industry that produces  Cage culture safe, high valuable and high quality products, and has developed the means to be  Pen culture environmentally sustainable. Aquaculture over recent years has not only led to  Race-way culture substantial socioeconomic benefits such as increased nutritional levels, income, On the basis of integration employment and foreign exchange but has also brought vast un-utilized and under- utilized land and water resources under culture.  Agriculture cum fish farming In near future world will have to face the challenge of “food gap” which is the  Animal husbandry cum fish farming difference between production and demand for food. This could be more than double Chapter 2: Introduction in the developing world during in the next 25 years and increasing dependence on On the basis of salinity imports from developed countries to the under developing countries will be more. To fill the “food gap” the productions from Agriculture and Aquaculture have to Freshwater Farming improved in a sustainable way. Farming of aquatic animals and plants in zero saline water, mostly fresh water farming is inland based. Catla, Rohu, Mrigal, Silver carp, Grass carp, Common carp and Fresh water prawn are mainly farmed in fresh water. Unit 3: Different systems of Aquaculture 3.1.2.1. Brakishwater Farming Chapter 1: Introduction Brakishwater is a mixture of seawater and freshwater with a salinity less than 30ppt. All estuaries, backwaters, creeks and mangrove waterways are brakish in 3.1.1. Different systems of aquaculture nature. Over 25 species of commercially important fishes, shrimps, crabs and Aquaculture practices are classified in several ways, depending upon the different mollusks offer a wide scope for farming in brakishwater. aspects and situations involved in the culture practice. Some major and important 3.1.2.2. Marinewater farming classifications are given below based on the different factors involved in aquaculture. Farming of aquatic animals and plants in sea water is commonly known as marinewater farming or mariculture. In mariculture rearing of commercially On the basis of salinity important fishes and shell fishes are done in open sea by installing cages.  Freshwater farming 8 3.1.3. On the basis of intensity of inputs and stocking density 3.1.4.2. Biological basis of polyculture Extensive fish farming system Common fish species in Indian polyculture are catla, rohu, mrigal, silver Extensive fish farming system is the least managed form of fish farming, in carp, grass carp and common carp, and this system is sometimes called as composite which little care is taken. This system involves large ponds measuring 1 to 5 ha in fish culture. The biological basis of polyculture is different fish species grow area with stocking density limited to only less than 5000 fishes/ha. No supplemental together in a pond with difference in feeding and living behavour. feeding or fertilization is provided. Fish depends only on natural foods. Yield is poor The principal requirements of the different species in combination for polyculture (500 to 2 ton/ha) and survival is low. The labour and investment costs are low and  They must be different in feeding habits this system results in minimum income.  They should occupy different columns in a pond system  They should attain marketable size at the same time 3.1.3.1. Semi-intensive fish farming system  They should be non predatory in behaviour Semi-intensive fish culture system is more prevalent and involves rather 3.1.5. On the basis of enclosure used for culture small ponds (0.5 to 1 hectare in area) with higher stocking density (10000 to 15000 Pond culture fish/ha). In this system care is taken to develop natural foods by fertilization with/without supplemental feeding. However, major food source is natural food. It is the most common method of fish culture. In this case water is Yield is moderate (3 to 10 ton/ha) and survival is high. maintained in an enclosed area by artificial construction of dike/bund, where aquatic animals are stocked and grown. Ponds are usually filled by rain, canal water and by 3.1.3.2. Intensive fish farming system man made bores. They differ widely in shape, size, topography, water and soil Intensive fish farming system is the well-managed form of fish farming, in qualities. which all attempts are made to achieve maximum production of fish from a 3.1.5.1. Cage culture minimum quantity of water. This system involves small ponds/tanks/raceways with very high stocking density (10-50 fish/m3 of water). Fish are fed completely Cage culture is rearing of fish from juvenile stage to commercial size in a formulated feed. Good management is undertaken to control water quality by use of volume of water enclosed on all sides including bottom, while permitting the free aerators and nutrition by use of highly nutritious feed. The yield obtained ranges circulation of water. Cage culture is readily adapted to water areas which cannot be from 15 to 100 ton/ha or more. Although the cost of investment is high, the return drained. Fish culture in cage is an innovative concept to exploit the potential of from the yield of fish exceeds to ensure profit. lakes, reservoirs and riverine pools. Cage culture of fish and other aquatic organisms is popular in many countries. Japan, South Korea, China, Philippines, Thailand, 3.1.4. On the basis of number of species stocked for farming Malaysia, Germany, Norway, USA are some of the countries where cage culture is Monoculture well developed. In principle, almost every cultivable species of fish can be cultured Monoculture is a fish production system in which only one fish species is in cages, such as carps, tilapia, trout, catfishes, etc. depending on socioeconomic, reared in a culture system. The major fish varieties reared in monoculture system are ecological and technical suitability. trout, tilapia, catfishes, carps, shrimp etc. Monoculture of high-value, market- Advantages of Cage Culture oriented fish species in intensive system is a common practice throughout the world. Supplementary feeding is compulsory to ensure production.  Use existing waterbodies  Technical simplicity with which farms can be established or expanded Polyculture  Lower capital cost compared with land-based farms Polyculture is a fish production system in which two or more different fish  Easier stock management and monitoring compared with pond culture species are farmed or culture of fish along with some other aquatic animals like Disadvantages of Cage Culture shrimp or prawn. In this system of culture species with different habitats and  Stock is vulnerable to external water quality problems eg. Algal blooms, low different food preferences are stocked together in such densities that there will be oxygen almost no competition for food or space. Polyculture practices give higher yield than  Stock is more vulnerable to fish eating predators such as water rats and birds monoculture under the same conditions for freshwater carp farming.  Growth rates are significantly influenced by ambient water temperatures 9 3.1.5.2. Pen culture such as ammonia and other excreted materials, if not immediately removed/ recycled. They pollute the water and cause damages. Pen culture is defined as raising of fish in a volume of water enclosed on all e. Rapid spread of diseases : For the same reason of high stocking density in an sides except bottom, permitting the free circulation of water at least from one side. enclosed area, any disease beginning will spread very quickly and can cause This system can be considered a hybrid between pond culture and cage culture. immense mortality of stock and production decline. Mostly shallow regions along shores and banks of the lakes and reservoirs are used in making pen/enclosure using net/wooden materials where fish can be raised. In a f. Risk of theft : Since the fish are kept in an enclosed area, ‘poaching’ and thefts fish pen, the bottom of the lake forms the bottom of the pen. Pen has the advantage can take place more frequently than in natural waters, but perhaps less than those of containing a benthic fauna which serves as food for the fish and polycultue can be from cages. practiced in pens as it is in ponds. The environment in fish pen is characterized by a g. Conflict with multiple use of natural waters : In locations where a pen is free exchange of water with the enclosing water body and high dissolved oxygen constructed, if the water is used for multipurpose like irrigation and recreational concentrations. activities, such as swimming, boating etc. may lead to conflicts. Advantages: 3.1.6. Raceway a. Intensive utilization of available space : Stocking density can be increased Raceway culture is defined as raising of fish in running water. It is a high compared to that of a pond culture system production system in which fishes are grown in higher stocking density. Raceways b. Safety from predators: Within the enclosure the predators can be excluded. are designed to provide a flow-through system to enable rearing of much denser In the larger pens this would be more difficult, but in smaller pens this can be population of fishes. done as efficiently. Raceway ponds are basically of two types: c. Suitability for culturing many varied species : Due availability of more Linear type : Ponds arranged in sequence. In a linear type, the volume of water space and the natural water system entering each pond is larger and as the same water is used repeatedly from pond to d. Ease of harvest : In the large pens the harvest may not be as easy as in cage pond, occurrence of disease in initial ponds may directly affect the other connected rearing but it more controllable and easier than in the natural waters. ponds e. The flexibility of size and economy : When compared with the cage, pens can Lateral type : Ponds laid out in parallel.n a lateral or parallel type the volume of be made much larger and construction costs will be cheaper than that of the water entering each pond is smaller but a fresh supply of water is always ensured, cages. and no transfer of disease from one pond to another. f. Availability of natural food and exchange of materials with the bottom : 3.1.7. Recirculating Aquaculture system (RAS) Since, the bottom of the pen is the natural bottom, the pen cultured organisms A Recirculating Aquaculture System (RAS) can be defined as an are at an advantage that they can procure food/exchange materials from the aquaculture system that incorporates the treatment and reuse of water with less than natural bottom. 10% of total water volume replaced per day. The concept of RAS is to reuse a Disadvantages: volume of water through continual treatment and delivery to the organisms being a. High demand for oxygen and water flow cultured. b. Dependence on artificial feed Water treatment components used in RAS need to accommodate the input of c. Food losses : Part of the feed is likely to be lost uneaten, and drifted away in the high amounts of feed required to sustain high rates of growth and stocking densities current, but the loss here would be less than in floating cages. typically required to meet financial outcomes. Generally, RAS consist of mechanical and biological filtration components, pumps and holding tanks and may include a d. Pollution : Since a large biomass of fish are cultured intensively a large quantity number of additional water treatment elements that improve water quality and of excrements accumulate in the area and cause a high BOD - also substances provide disease control within the system. 10 3.1.8. On the basis of different farm integration serve as direct food for fish. Hence, the expenditure towards chemical fertilisers and supplementary feeds for fish ponds are totally avoided reducing the production cost. Fish farming with agriculture In the fish integrated agriculture system, fish culture is integrated with 3.1.9.1. Cattle-Fish integrated farming agricultural crops such as rice, banana and coconut, thereby producing fish and Cow dungh is the most widely used manure, in fish ponds all over the world. agricultural crops. Agriculture based integrated systems include rice-fish integration, A healthy cow excretes over 4,000-5,000 kg dung, 3,500-4,000 litre urine annually. horticulture-fish system, mushroom-fish system, seri-fish system. For 1 ha pond 5-6 cows can provide adequate manure. An additional income is generated from milk (9,000 litres/year) and fish production ranges from 3,000-4,000 3.1.8.1. Rice-Fish integrated farming kg fish/ha/year. In this system of farming fish is farmed in paddy fields, not all paddy varieties are suitable for integrated fish farming. Varieties with strong root system 3.1.9.2. Pig-Fish integrated farming like Tulsi, Panidhan, CR260 77, ADT 6, ADT7, Rajarajan and Pattambi 15 and 16 In this farming system 60-100 no of pigs are enough to fertilize one hectare are suitable for farming in combination with fish because it has strong roots to area fish pond. A floor space of 3-4m2 is required for a single pig. Five tones of pig withstand flood conditions. The fish species such as Common carp, Tilapia and manure is required for manuring 1 ha fish pond for 1 year. Pigs are fed with kitchen Murrells are most suitable for culture in rice fields. waste, aquatic plants and crop wastes. The waste produced by 30-35 pigs is equivalent to 1 tonne of ammonium sulphate. Exotic breeds like White Yorkshire, 3.1.8.2. Horticulture-Fish integrated farming Landrace and Hampshire are reared in this farming system. Grass carp, silver carp The dykes and the adjoining areas of the ponds can be best utilized for and common carp (1:2:1 ratio) are suitable for integrated farming with pigs. horticulture crops. The top, inner and the outer dykes can be planted with dwarf variety coconut, mango and banana. And the side by land can be used for planting 3.1.9.3. Poultry-Fish integrated farming pineapple, ginger, and turmeric and chilly. The exchanging water can be used to Chicken droppings are rich in phosphorus and nitrogen, so chicken manure water the plants which is rich in organic load. The residues from the vegetables is an effective fertilizer. For 1ha fish pond 25,000 chicks can be reared. Poultry shed cultivated could be recycled into fishponds, particularly when stocked wi th fishes is constructed above the pond with bamboo flooring to facilitate the direct like grass carp. fertilization of the pond. One chicken produces 25 kg poultry manure per year. From 3.1.8.3. Mushroom-Fish integrated farming poultry 90,000 to 1,00,000 eggs and 2500 kg meat can be produced and 3000 – 4500 kg of fish can be produced without any chemical fertilizer and supplementary Cultivation of mushroom requires high degree of humidity and therefore its feeding. cultivation along with aquaculture tremendous scope. Agaricus bisporus , Voloriella spp. and Pleurotus spp., are commercially cultured mushrooms in India. 3.1.9.4. Duck-Fish integrated farming In Duck-fish integrated farming, ducks provide a safe environment to fish by 3.1.8.4. Seri-Fish integrated farming consuming juvenile frogs, tadpoles and dragonfly in the pond. As the duck spends In this faming system silk worm is cultured along with fish. Here the most of its time swimming in the pond the dropping goes directly in pond, which in mulberry leaves produced is primarily consumed by the silk worm and the faeces of turn provides essential nutrients to stimulate growth of natural food in the fish pond. the silk worm is directly applied to the fish pond to increase of natural food The duck dropping contain 25 per cent organic and 20 per cent inorganic substances organism-detritus and bacteria in fishpond. with a number of elements such as carbon, phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen, 3.1.9. Livestock integrated fish farming calcium, etc. Hence, it forms a very good source of fertilizer. To fertilize 1 ha fish Livestock integrated fish farming system includes cattle-fish system, pig- pond number of ducks required is between 100 and 3,000, depending on the duration fish system, poultry-fish system, duck-fish system, goat-fish system, rabbit-fish of fish culture and the manure requirements. system. In this integrated farming the excreta of ducks, chicks, pigs and cattle are Small ruminants such as goats and sheep are integrated with fish culture is practised, used directly in ponds to increase plankton production which is consumed by fish or but on a very small scale. Integrated rabbit-fish farming is also practiced only on a very small scale. This system has up to now not received much attention. 11 3.1.10. Types of aquaculture systems 7) Based on organism cultured Different categories of aquaculture a) Fish farm b) Prawn farm Based on different source available and involved in farming activity, aquaculture is c) Crab farm categorized as mentioned below. d) Oyster farm 1) Based on temperature of water e) Mussel farm  Warm water farms f) Seaweed farm  Cold water farms 8) Based on development stage 2) Based on water replacement a) Breeding farm/Hatchery a) Running water farms b) Nursery farm b) Stagnant water farms c) Seed rearing farm 3) Based on physiographical zone d) Grow out farm a) Inland fish farms 9) Based on sex b) Coastal fish farms a) Monosex culture farms c) Marine fish farms b) Mixed-sex culture farms 4) Based on water source 10) Based on stocking a) Rain fed farms a) Single size stocking b) Tide fed farms b) Multiple size stocking c) Ground water fed farms 11) Based on harvesting d) River/Canal fed farms a) Single harvesting e) Spring water/Artesian fed farms b) Multiple harvesting c) Rotational harvesting f) Sewage fed farms g) Seepage water farms 12) Based on levels of input intensity 5) Based on material used for pond construction a) Level 1 – Without management either for stocking fish seeds or for fish food supply. a) Earthen ponds b) Cement ponds b) Level 2 – Seeds are stocked. These are supported by the fish food organisms produced only by natural soil productivity. Only stocking of seed is c) Lined earthen ponds prevalent. d) Plastic tanks c) Level 3 – Seeds are stocked and are supported by the fish food organisms 6) Based on species cultured produced by natural soil productivity and increased productivity by organic a) Carp farming manure and inorganic fertilizer application. Stocking of seed and manure b) Shrimp farming fertilizer application is prevalent. c) Tilapia farming d) Level 4 – Stocked fishes are supported by natural soil based productivity, d) Cat fish farming increased productivity due to manure fertilizer application and supplementary feeding. e) Mullet farming e) Level 5 – Hatchery produced seeds a supported only by formulated feeds. 12  Unit 4: Principles of organic aquaculture  Feed and fertilizer from certified organic agriculture and fisheries Chapter 1. Introduction  Organic criteria of sustainability for fishmeal sources  Absence of GMOs(Genetically Modified Organisms) in stocks and feed 4.1.1. Organic aquaculture  Stocking density limits The global fishery industries is in a stage of fishery resources depletion due to unsustainable fishing practices, large scale aquatic pollution, commercial  Restriction of energy consumption (e.g. regarding oxygenation) exploitation of aquatic environment and destruction of primary breeding  Preference for natural medicines environment such as mangrove forests & coral reefs. Due to intensification of  Processing in approved organic facilities aquaculture practice all over the world, has in turn resulted in accumulation of high 4.1.3. History of Organic aquaculture levels of antibiotics, PCBs, residues of pesticides and heavy metals causing a great Organic aquaculture is based on the organic agriculture farming technology, and damage to environment. Organic Aquaculture is the only solution to increase fish these root causes continue to shape the organic aquaculture sector in many ways. production in sustainable and environment friendly manner. Organic farmers in Austria and Germany first started to develop extensive “organic” “Organic aquaculture is production of high quality foods in a stable aquatic carp production system in the early nineties. At that time, although the organic food ecosystem by managing the natural resources and environment without any negative market was still a niche market in terms of volume, it already offered most types of effects and to secure the genetic diversity and richness of species in a native food in organic quality – with the exception of fish. system.” Current problem with the industrial aquaculture practice of fish harvested The successful launch of organic salmon, first in Germany and later in the from wild as feed for the production of cultured fish, 3 tons of wild fish is used to United Kingdom and France, accelerated the development process of organic produce feed for the production of 1 ton of farmed fish, so this depletes the natural aquaculture initiatives throughout the world. A further milestone in the history of stock available in wild. To increase production, fast growing exotic fish varieties are organic aquaculture was the development of standards for the production of organic farmed this result in weakening of the native species and transfer of disease from shrimp. After the launch of the organic shrimp concept, which drew attention farmed aquatic animals to wild fish is also major problem in the current aquaculture internationally, a number of European development agencies became interested in systems. Organic aquaculture is a method to reduce the abovementioned adverse spreading the initiative to more southern countries. effects of the industrial aquaculture practice. Organic aquaculture is most important Organic farming of additional finfish species started in Europe, Asia, and Latin in the sustainable and environmental friendly aquaculture production. This method America. In continental Europe, organic trout production took off, a big organic of culture also farms the aquatic organisms in conditions similar to that of the natural Pangasius catfish project was started in Vietnam by the Germany-based seafood environment. company, organic tilapia farming started in Israel and Ecuador and in the As in case with the other forms of food production industries there is some Mediterranean, seabass and seabream farms were converted to organic management. consumer interest in organic aquaculture. However fi s h farmers have been slow to All over the world there are 240 number of certified organic aquaculture adopt the organic standard as many claim that modern aquaculture practices are operations (including the production of micro algae) in 29 different countries in already " organic " in principal but do not meet the strict legal standards. 2009, most of the operations are located in Europe. 4.1.2. Principles of organic aquaculture In China, 72 operations have received organic certification under the national The main principles of organic aquaculture are as follows: Chinese regulation. Commonly in China organic production of carp in polyculture,  Monitoring of environmental impact in combination with crabs, shrimps or other local species. There are also certified operations producing turtles or sea cucumbers in China. In Bangladesh, India,  Natural breeding procedures without use of hormones and antibiotics Thailand, and Vietnam there is increase in the organic production of Black Tiger  No use of inorganic fertilizers Shrimp, In Vietnam organic Pangasius catfish is produced and organic production of  Integration of natural plant communities in farm management micro-algae in India. Total organic aquaculture production reached about 53,500  No synthetic pesticides and herbicides tons in 2009, accounting for about 0.1 percent of aquaculture production worldwide 13  INDOCERT (Indian organic certification) is an Indian certification body as possible. Synthetic and unnatural additives must not be used in organic farming accredited as per National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP), Govt. of system. India to carry out inspections and issue certificates for organic production systems. 4.1.4.6. Treatments and animal health welfare INDOCERT is offering certification for the domestic market based on the National Standards for Organic Production and certification for export markets based on Standards: Considering the health management in aquatic organisms “Prevention is USDA ( United States Department of Agriculture). better than cure” concept should be followed so that there will not be any need for medication. If there is still sign of disease, suitable measures shall be adopted 4.1.4. General standards for Organic aquaculture production immediately. Drugs with the minimum environmentally harmful effect and with the Some of the general standards which are to be followed in an organic farming minimum risk to human and animal health should be used for treatment. aquaculture system are listed unit wise 4.1.4.7. Record keeping 4.1.4.1. Production unit setup Standards: It is a very important protocol to be followed in feed management and in Standards: The production unit should manage the surrounding environment from disease management of the aquatic organism. For disease management record must any impacts like escapement of cultured organism, spreading of disease, avoiding have all the details related to disease and its treatment procedures followed. The the use of synthetic and chemical fertilizers and paints. Consideration for the farm manager should maintain a monthly record of the feed type, feed producer, and surrounding environment is crucial for positioning and management of the organic quantity fed used till the end of the crop. unit. A universally accepted standard for organic aquaculture practices does not 4.1.4.2. Environment / Water Quality currently exist. To risk investment in this sector, producers require formally Standards: The water system must be loaded to the minimum possible extent with recognized standards in order to communicate the advant ages of the organic feed wastage and faeces that can cause over-fertilization or other disturbances to aquaculture products to consumers. The key to the continued growth and natural environment. Aqua farmers should not deplete nor excessively exploit the development of organic aquaculture lies in resolving a number of issues that available water resources, and must preserve the natural water quality. currently stand in the way of instituting internationally accepted certification standards. 4.1.4.3. Breeds and Breeding Standards: Breeds that are adjusted to local conditions should be used. Breeding Unit 5: SITE SELECTION AND CONSTRUCTION OF FISH FARM must be done on a large number of breeding pairs to prevent inbreeding, enetic damage and loss of genetic variation. Triploid, genetically modified and sex reversed 5.1.1. Site selection organisms should not be used. Proper selection of suitable site for farming is the important factor in 4.1.4.4. Feed and feeding determining the success of a fish farm. The selection of suitable site for construction of pond depends on two main factors such as the water retention capacity of the soil Standards: The feed should consist of organic raw materials originating from wild and its inherent fertility and also its capacity to respond readily to organic and aquatic stocks. For management of fishery resource, aquatic raw materials from inorganic fertilization. Besides these, there should be dependable perennial source of stocks that are not used for human consumption and from by-products must be used adequate water supply to fill in ponds at any time of the year. for feed preparation. Feeding must be performed in a way that allows natural feed available in pond system also gets consumed with minimal wastage of the The site should preferably be gently sloping, so that self draining ponds can be supplemented feed. possible on higher elevation. In swampy and marshy areas, bunds have to be piled up by depositing earth to construct ponds of required size. The site should be easily 4.1.4.5. Additives accessible by road or rail with market nearby the farm for easy disposal of fish. The Standards: Additives such as growth promoters, hormones and appetizers should necessary inputs like feeds, fertilizers and building materials for construction and never be used and the usable additives like vitamins, minerals, antioxidants and other accessories should be available near the site. There should not be any colouring agents should be of natural in origin or it should be close to natural form industrial, domestic or insecticide and pesticide pollution at the site. The farm should 14 have additional scope for integration of aquaculture with agriculture and animal probably the pond may need more time due to the high ground water levels. If the husbandry. Site selection also depends on the kind of fish planned to be farmed. For hole is still empty the next morning, then the site will be suitable for farming. Now site selection and pond construction following factors are to be considered, as a next step soil should be tested for its water permeability. 1. Ecological factors c. Water Permeability test a. Soil b. Water c. Land c. Climate To perform the permeability test fill the hole with water to the top and cover 2. Biological and operational factors the hole with leaves. Next day if water level reduces then the soil has more water seepage. To reconfirm refill the hole with water to the top Cover it once more with 3. Economic and social factors leaves check the water level the next day. If the water level is still high, the soil is 5.1.1.1. Ecological factors impermeable enough and is suitable for pond construction. If the water has Soil disappeared again, the site is not suitable for fish farming, unless the bottom is first covered with plastic or heavy clays. The quality of soil influences both productivity and water quality in a pond. However, it must also be suitable for dike construction. To determine soil suitability 5.1.1.1.1. Water the most important properties to be examined are soil texture (particle size Availability of an adequate and dependable source of water is another composition) and porosity or permeability (ability to let water pass through). prerequisite for setting up a fish farm. The pond should be filled with water at The pond bottom must be able to hold water and the soil should also regular intervals so as to adjust water depth. The usual source of water supply to fish contribute to the fertility of the water by providing nutrients (Clay soil is more farm are reservoirs, streams, springs, canals, surface run off (rain), wells, tube wells fertile) so the best soil for pond construction should contain more of clay. Mostly silt etc. However, the best thing to do is to have as far as possible natural, preferably rain clay, clay-loam, loamy soils are generally suitable for a fish pond. A good quality Water and other large water bodies, because in natural 'water bodies, dissolved soil should consist of 90% soil fraction and gravels not exceeding 10%. Rocky, oxygen content, pH, water quality and water temperature are more stable and sandy, gravel and limestone areas are to be avoided. In case of porous soil, pond suitable for fish to grow. bottom may be treated with bentonite, clay or other soil sealants. On the contrary, the water from underground source is often deficient in Plastic film liners can be used to reduce the rate of seepage. But such dissolved oxygen. The waste water discharged from factories and mines usually treatment apart from being expensive, prevent exchange of 'soil-water minerals and contain harmful chemicals which are not suitable for fish farming. The ponds should nutrients making the pond less productive. The three ways one should follow to be at a safe distance away from rivers and reservoirs so as to avoid water flooding predict whether the soil will be suitable for pond construction are: during rainy season. Water should not be either highly acidic or alkaline. It should be corrected if acidic by the application of lime and if alkaline by adding organic a. Squeeze method manure. Water parameters should also be taken into consideration in selection of an b. Ground water test area for faming c. Water permeability test (a) Water temperature a. Squeeze method The water temperature is an important condition in assessing whether the Wet hand full of soil is taken and squeeze the soil by closing your hand fish species selected can be raised. A water temperature between 20°C and 30°C is firmly, if it holds its shape after opening the palm of your hand, the soil will be good generally good for fish farming. for pond construction (b) Water salinity b. Ground water test Variation in water salinity (amount of dissolved salts in the water) is also an For reliable results this test should be performed during the dry period. Dig a important factor which must be considered. Some fish species can withstand a wider hole with a depth of one meter and cover it with leaves for one night. If the hole is salinity range than others: e.g. tilapia and catfish can withstand a wide range from filled with ground water the next morning a pond could be built. But for draining fresh- to seawater while carp can only withstand freshwater. 15  Fresh water sources for fish farm and their main disadvantages a. Temperature Sl.No Water source Disadvantage b. Rainfall Dependency - The supply depends c. Evaporation Rainfall - "sky" ponds rely on d. Humidity 1 heavily on amount of rain and rainfall only to supply water seasonal fluctuations e. Sunshine High turbidity - Turbidity is the f. Wind speed and direction Run-off - Ponds can be filled when amount of mud in the water. In case g. Incidence of high rainfall, wind/heavy storms and earthquake 2 water from the surrounding land of run-off the water may be muddy. 5.1.1.2. Biological and operational factors area runs into them Danger of flooding and pesticides (or other pollutants) in the water Before initiation or finalization of a site for farm construction the following factors are to be ascertained