APHY101 Study Guide PDF

**STUDENT STUDY GUIDE for APHY101 LECTURE** (revised 8/1/2018) [Human Anatomy & Physiology] by Erin C. Amerman This is a list of all concepts you need to know for the APHY 101 comprehensive final exam. At least 90% of the exam will relate to concepts in **bold font**, but any concept listed may ap...

**STUDENT STUDY GUIDE for APHY101 LECTURE** (revised 8/1/2018) [Human Anatomy & Physiology] by Erin C. Amerman This is a list of all concepts you need to know for the APHY 101 comprehensive final exam. At least 90% of the exam will relate to concepts in **bold font**, but any concept listed may appear on the exam. **[Chapter 1- Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology (3 - 5 questions on final exam)]** 1. List the characteristics of life and describe processes carried out by living organisms. 2. **List in order the major structural levels of organization of found in the human body.** 3. **Explain the difference between anatomy and physiology.** Describe the types of anatomy and physiology and give examples. 4. Name the different organ systems and major functions of each. 5. Describe body structures using appropriate directional and regional terminology. Identify various planes in which a structure might be dissected. 6. Describe the locations of body cavities and list the serous membranes that line them. 7. **Define homeostasis and homeostatic regulation. Give an example. Define receptor (sensor), control center and effector, and explain what role each of these play in homeostatic regulation. Give examples of these.** **Explain how feedback relates to homeostatic regulation. Describe examples of positive and negative feedback loops.** **[Chapter 2 -- The Chemistry of Life (8 -- 12 questions)]** 1. **Define chemistry, matter, element, and atom.** 2. **Name three subatomic particles as well as the charges (if any) and locations of each.** 3. **What information can be determined from the atomic number and mass number for an atom?** 4. **Explain what isotopes are and what radioisotopes are used for in medical settings.** 5. **Distinguish between matter that is a physical mixture and matter that is chemmicaly combined.** 6. **What is a molecule?** 7. **Compare and contrast ionic bonds and covalent bonds.** 8. **Describe a compound.** 9. **Explain the difference between a nonpolar and polar molecule.** 10. **What is a hydrogen bond?** 11. What does it mean when an element is reactive or inert? 12. **What is an ion? What is anion? What is a cation? Which is formed by the loss of an electron?** 13. Define chemical reaction, reactant, and product. Differentiate between catabolic reactions, exchange reactions, and anabolic reactions. 14. **What is an enzyme? How do enzymes affect chemical reactions?** 15. **Give examples of inorganic compounds.** 16. **What is the difference between and acid and a base? What does it mean if a solution is neutral? What does the pH scale measure? What do the numbers correspond with? What are buffers?** 17. **Define electrolytes and salts.** 18. **What are the differences between organic and inorganic compounds? Give examples of each.** 19. **What is a carbohydrate? What are the roles of carbohydrates in the body? Define and describe monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.** 20. **What are lipids? Define and describe fatty acids, phospholipids, and cholesterol. What are the roles of each lipid in the body?** What is the difference between a saturated and an unsaturated fatty acid? 21. **List at least three functions of proteins in the body. Describe the relationship of amino acids to proteins.** Describe the primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures of proteins. 22. **What are nucleic acids? What is a nucleotide?** Describe the structure and function of DNA and RNA. 23. What is ATP? **[Chapter 3 -- The Cell (5 -- 8 questions)]** 1. **What are cells?** 2. **What is cell metabolism? Differentiate between anabolic reactions and catabolic reactions.** 3. Define cytoplasm, cytosol, cytoskeleton and **organelles.** 4. **What are the functions of the cell membrane (plasma membrane)? Describe the structure of the cell membrane. Identify hydrophilic and hydrophobic portions of a phospholipid**. 5. **Differentiate between integral and peripheral proteins and list several functions of proteins found in the cell membrane.** 6. **Define selectively permeable. How is this characteristic important to a cell membrane?** 7. **What does it mean for a cellular transport process to be passive? Explain several examples of passive transport processes including diffusion and osmosis.** 8. **What is osmotic pressure? Explain tonicity in terms of isotonic, hypotonic and hypertonic solutions.** 9. **What is a concentration gradient?** 10. **What does it mean for a cellular transport process to be active? Explain several examples of active transport processes.** 11. **What is electrical potential? How are ion transport mechanisms responsible for electrical potential?** 12. **Explain active transport mechanisms that use vesicles including endocytosis, exocytosis and transcytosis.** 13. **For each of the following cellular structures, briefly describe the structure and function: mitochondria,** peroxisome, **ribosome, rough endoplasmic reticulum, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, transport vesicles, Golgi apparatus** and lysosome**.** 14. **What is the cytoskeleton?** Describe microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules. 15. Describe the structure and function of a centrosome. 16. **What are microvilli? Explain the purpose of cilia and flagella.** 17. **What is the nucleus? What does it contain?** 18. What is chromatin? The nuclear envelope? Nuclear pores? Nucleoplasm? Nucleolus? 19. **Briefly explain how DNA codes for cellular proteins.** 20. Briefly describe the cell cycle and phases of mitosis. **Describe the process of DNA replication.** 21. Explain what a tumor is and contrast benign with cancerous (malignant) tumors. 22. **Describe the structure of DNA and RNA. What bases are found within DNA and RNA? How are the bases paired?** 23. **What is a gene? Briefly describe the transcription and translation processes of protein synthesis.** 24. What is a mutation and how can it affect protein synthesis? **[Chapter 4 - Histology (4 - 8 questions)]** 1. Define tissue. 2. Describe the three types of intercellular junctions that connect cell membranes together? 3. **What are the major functions of tissues in each of the four different tissue categories?** 4. **In general, where do you find epithelial tissue?** What are the basic features of epithelial tissues? (Know the terms apical surface, lumen, basement membrane, and avascular). 5. **What are the classifications of epithelial tissues based on cell shapes and number of layers of cells?** Describe the different types of simple epithelium. Describe the different types of stratified epithelium. Give examples of where we might find each type. 6. Define the terms keratinized and nonkeratinized. 7. Explain what glandular epithelium is. **Define endocrine and exocrine glands**. 8. Define merocrine and holocrine secretions. Give examples. 9. **What are the general characteristics of connective tissue? What is extracellular matrix? Describe ground substance, the three types of cells, and the three types of fibers found in the matrix.** 10. Describe the different types of connective tissues included in the connective tissue proper grouping. List characteristics of each type and examples of each type. 11. Describe the different types of connective tissues included in the specialized connective tissues. List characteristics of each type and examples of each type. 12. **Define the terms chondrocyte, lacunae,** and perichondrium. 13. **Define what a membrane is. Name and briefly explain the characteristics of the four types of membranes found in the body. Give examples of where these membranes are found.** 14. What are the general characteristics of each of the three types of muscle tissue? Where is each type found? 15. What is nervous tissue? What are the two main cells found in neural tissue? What are the basic parts of a neuron? **[Chapter 5 -- Integumentary System (3 - 5 questions)]** 1. Name and locate the layers of the cutaneous membrane. **What is the hypodermis?** 2. **Describe the epidermis. What takes place in keratinization? What are the functions of the epidermis?** 3. **What are melanocytes? Where are they found? What is melanin?** 4. **Describe the dermis. What are the papillary layer and the reticular layer? What are dermal papillae?** 5. Define the terms associated with nails: nail plate, nail bed, and lunula. 6. **Define** these terms associated with hair: hair follicle, hair root, hair papilla, hair shaft, and arrector pili muscle. 7. **Distinguish between the types of skin glands: sebaceous, sweat (apocrine and eccrine). Where is each type located? What does each type secrete, and what are the purposes of their secretions?** 8. **What are the basic functions of the skin?** 9. Explain how and why inflammation occurs. Be familiar with the process by which regeneration occurs to heal wounds and burns. 10. Be familiar with age-related changes that affect the integument. **[Chapter 6 -- Bones and Bone Tissue and Chapter 7 -- The Skeletal System (5 -- 8 questions)]** 1. List and describe the bone shapes. 2. **Know the parts of a long bone: epiphysis, articular cartilage, diaphysis, metaphysis, periosteum, compact bone, spongy bone, medullary cavity, endosteum, red bone marrow, yellow bone marrow.** 3. **Define these terms: lamellae, lacuna, canaliculi, osteogenesis (ossification).** 4. **Define and explain these terms associated with compact bone: osteon, central canal, perforating canal.** 5. **Describe how spongy bone is structured. Define trabeculae.** 6. **Give examples of intramembranous bones. Describe the events of intramembranous ossification. What tissue begins this process?** 7. **Give examples of endochondral bones. What is endochondral ossification? What tissue begins this process? What is the primary ossification center? Secondary ossification center? Epiphyseal plate? Epiphyseal line?** 8. **Describe the function of these three cell types found in bone: osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts.** 9. Know the basic processes in homeostasis of bone tissue (i.e. bone remodeling). 10. What are the basic functions of the skeletal system? 11. **What is hydroxyapatite? What mineral does it contain?** 12. Describe the conditions of osteopenia and osteoporosis. 13. Identify each bone studied in lab as being part of the axial skeleton or the appendicular skeleton. **[Chapter 8 -- Articulations (3 -- 5 questions)]** 1. **What is meant by the "articulations" of the body?** 2. **List the three structural classifications of joints.** 3. Describe syndesmosis, suture, gomphosis, synchondrosis, symphysis, and synovial joints. 4. **Describe the general structure and function of a synovial joint.** 5. What are the functions of synovial fluid? 6. **Describe the menisci and bursae.** 7. Name and define the six types of synovial joints. Recognize examples of each. 8. Describe each of these joint movements: flexion (lateral, dorsiflexion, plantar flexion), extension, hyperextension, abduction, adduction, circumduction, rotation (medial rotation, lateral rotation, pronation, supination), opposition, retraction, protraction, eversion, inversion, depression, elevation. 9. List the types of articulations seen at the shoulder, elbow, hip, and knee. Also discuss the types of movements that can occur at each of these joints. 10. Describe the conditions of rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. **[Chapter 9 -- The Muscular System and Chapter 10 -- Muscle Tissue and Physiology (8 - 12 questions)]** 1. **Define fascia, tendons, aponeurosis, and deep fascia (epimysium, perimysium, endomysium).** 2. **Define the following terms: fascicles, skeletal muscle fibers,** sarcolemma, sarcoplasm**, myofibrils**, **myofilaments, actin, myosin, sarcomere**, z line, troponin, tropomyosin, transverse tubule (T tubule), sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). 3. **What is the neuromuscular junction (NMJ)? Explain what happens here? (Utilize the terms: synapse, neuron, impulse/action potential, and motor end plate, neurotransmitter, synaptic cleft). What is role of acetylcholine (ACh)?** 4. **Explain how excitation-contraction coupling occurs and how a muscle contracts (utilize the terms: transverse tubule sarcoplasmic reticulum, calcium, actin, myosin, tropomyosin, troponin, cross-bridge, and ATP).** 5. **What is the sliding filament theory/model? What happens to the sarcomere?** 6. **What events must occur for a muscle to relax? What is the function of acetylcholinesterase?** 7. **What is the role of ATP in skeletal muscle contraction? What is creatine phosphate, and what is its role in muscle contraction?** 8. What is myoglobin? 9. **What is lactic acid? When is this produced?** 10. **Define muscle fatigue? What causes it?** 11. **Why is heat produced when a muscle contracts?** 12. **Explain the meaning of threshold stimulus and summation.** 13. **What is a motor unit? What is recruitment?** 14. **Describe how muscles achieve sustained contractions of varying force.** 15. **What is muscle tone?** 16. Describe isotonic contraction, concentric contraction, eccentric contraction and isometric contraction? 17. Describe the characteristics of the three skeletal muscle fiber types (fast, slow, and intermediate fibers). 18. **Contrast the locations, cellular characteristics, and mode of control of smooth and cardiac muscle versus skeletal muscle.** 19. Define hypertrophy and atrophy. **[Chapter 11 -- Introduction to the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue (5 -- 9 questions)]** 1. **What are the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)? Describe the divisions of the PNS.** 2. **What are neurons? Describe the structure and function of these parts of a neuron: dendrites, cell body, axon, axon hillock, and synaptic knobs/terminals.** 3. What are the three basic structural classifications of neurons? 4. What are the three functional classifications of neurons? Explain each function. 5. **Name four different types of neuroglia in the CNS. Explain what each does.** 6. **Name two types of neuroglia in the PNS. Explain what each does.** 7. **Describe myelin, myelin sheath, and nodes (nodes of Ranvier).** 8. **What is white matter and gray matter?** 9. **Describe a synapse. (Include the terms: presynaptic cell, postsynaptic cell, synaptic cleft, vesicles, neurotransmitters, and receptors)** 10. **What ion is more concentrated on the outside of a neuron and what ion is more concentrated inside of the neuron?** 11. **Define transmembrane potential. What is the numeric value of the resting membrane potential?** 12. **What is a local potential (graded potential)? Define hyperpolarize and depolarize with respect to this potential.** 13. **What is threshold potential?** 14. **Describe an action potential? Define depolarize and repolarize with respects to this potential. What causes the opening of voltage-gated ion channels? Summarize the events that lead to an action potential and conduction of an electrical impulse.** 15. **What is conduction? Describe saltatory conduction.** 16. **Describe events of synaptic transmission. How do the chemically-gated channels in a synapse differ from other types of ion channels?** **[Chapter 12 -- The Central Nervous System ( 5 - 9 questions)]** 1. **Describe the locations and general functions of each of the following: cerebrum, diencephalon, cerebellum, brainstem.** 2. **Name the lobes of the cerebrum and know their locations and general functions.** 3. **Define cerebrum, cerebral hemispheres,** gyri, sulci, and fissures. 4. Where do you find the cerebral cortex? **What type of tissue makes up the cerebral cortex? What are the general functions of the cerebral cortex?** 5. Name and describe the function of the sensory areas of the cortex. What is the location and function of the sensory speech area (Wernicke's area)? 6. What are the functions of the association areas? 7. What are the locations and functions of the primary motor cortex and the motor speech area (Broca's area)? 8. What is hemisphere dominance? What functions does the left hemisphere primarily contain? What functions does the right hemisphere primarily contain? 9. **Describe the location and function of the basal nuclei (basal ganglia)?** 10. **Where is the diencephalon located? What are its two main components and what are their functions?** 11. **What is the function of the limbic system do? What are the components of the limbic system and where are they generally located?** 11. **Where is the brain stem located? What are the three main parts of the brain stem? What do each of these parts do?** 12. **What are the layers of the cranial and spinal meninges? Where are they located?** 13. **What are ventricles? How many are there and where are they located.** 14. **What is cerebrospinal fluid? What is its function and where is it produced?** 15. **What is the epidural space?** 16. **Where is the cerebellum located? What is its primary function?** 17. **Contrast the function of the autonomic nervous system versus the somatic nervous system.** 18. **The autonomic nervous system consists of what two main divisions? Contrast the functions of these two divisions.** **[Chapter 13 -- The Peripheral Nervous System (4 -- 8 questions)]** 1. **What are cranial nerves?** 2. **Know the name and function of cranial nerves I and II.** 3. What is the spinal cord? How many pairs of spinal nerves are there? 4. **What are the two primary functions of the spinal cord?** 5. Identify the difference in location & composition of gray vs. white matter of the spinal cord. 6. Describe the function of each of the following general touch and pressure receptors: Merkel cell fibers, tactile corpuscles, Ruffini endings, hair follicle receptors, lamellated corpuscles and proprioceptors. 7. Briefly describe the nervous system reception of temperature, pain, proprioception, and visceral senses. 8. **What is a reflex? What is a reflex arc? Describe the steps of a basic reflex arc.** 9. What are the similarities and differences between a stretch and withdrawal reflex? 10. What are ascending tracts and descending tracts? 11. What are the connective tissue layers of the spinal nerves? 12. Define and contrast sensation and perception. 13. **Describe the purpose of each of the five main categories of sensory receptors and the three special types of mechanoreceptors?** 14. **What is sensory adaptation?** **[Chapter 15 -- The Special Senses (4 -- 9 questions)]** 1. **Describe the structure of the olfactory organ, and** the olfactory pathway to the cerebrum. 2. **Define gustation.** 3. **Describe lingual papillae and taste buds.** Where are taste receptors (gustatory receptors) located? Describe the gustatory pathway to the cerebrum. 4. List the five primary taste sensations. 5. **Briefly describe the parts of the external ear and the middle ear.** 6. **Describe these parts of the inner ear: cochlea, semicircular canals, vestibule, vestibular complex (= semicircular ducts, utricle, saccule), cochlear duct, perilymph and endolymph.** 7. **What is the function of spiral organ and where is it located?** 8. **Describe the events that are involved in hearing.** 9. **Explain how the hair cells in the semicircular ducts and utricle and saccule respond to movement.** 10. What is the role that the vestibulocochlear nerve plays in equilibrium and hearing? 11. **Describe these parts related to eye structure: conjunctiva, lacrimal apparatus, cornea, sclera, choroid coat, lens, iris, pupil, retina, optic disk**. 12. What are photoreceptors, and where are they located? What are rods and cones? 13. **Describe the pathway that light travels to reach the photoreceptors and how the stimulation is conveyed to the brain.**