APHUG Unit 2 Notes PDF

Module 7 Population and Migration Patterns and Processes Anthropocene: The period in which human activities have had the dominant influence on the environment. Demography: The statistical study of population and its change. Population distribution: The pattern in which humans are spread out on E...

Module 7 Population and Migration Patterns and Processes Anthropocene: The period in which human activities have had the dominant influence on the environment. Demography: The statistical study of population and its change. Population distribution: The pattern in which humans are spread out on Earth’s surface. Earth is home to almost 8.2 billion people (es About 80 percent of humans live in places that are less than 1640 feet above sea level. About two-thirds of the world’s population is found in the mid-latitudes and live within 310 miles (500 km) of an ocean. Roughly 6.8 billion of the world’s population lives in the northern hemisphere. Roughly 800 million of the world’s population lives in the southern hemisphere. Eurasia: A massive piece of land on Earth that consists of Europe and Asia. Population clusters: Heavily populated areas that illustrate the unevenness in global population distribution. Metacity: A city with more than 20 million residents. Megacity: A city with more than 10 million residents. Developed (or industrialized) country: A country with an advanced economy and a high standard of living. “Sparsely populated areas,” or “empty quarters” reflect the human tendency to avoid places that are too cold, too dry, too wet, too rugged, or too barren. Snow Belt: States located in the northern and midwestern parts of the country. Snowbelt states are losing population. Sunbelt: States in coastal areas and the South and Southwest. Sunbelt states are gaining population. Mean center of population: The balancing point given the distribution of population. Elevation: The distance above sea level. Humans prefer to live at lower elevations, especially in the middle and higher latitudes. By contrast, inhabitants of the tropics often prefer to live at higher elevations. In tropical portions of South America, more people live in the temperate Andes Mountains than in the nearby Amazon lowlands. Bodies of Water Humans often live near the sea. In Australia, half the total population lives in only five port cities, and most of the remainder is spread through nearby coastal areas. Factors that influence population distribution Climate Culture Economic Development Disease Population density: The average number of people per unit of land area. Arithmetic (crude) density: The average number of people per unit of land area (usually per square mile or kilometer). ( australia has the lowest ) This is the most commonly used population density and is calculated by dividing a region's population by its total area. The world’s population was 7621 million (mid-2018). The Earth’s total land surface is 57.51 million square miles. 7621 ÷ 57.51 = 133 persons per square mile. Earth’s arithmetic density. Arithmetic density can be misleading because it masks geographic variation. Physiological density: The average number of people per unit area (a square mile or kilometer) of arable land — that is, land suitable for cultivation. Arable -land suitable food growing crops and farming Japan’s population was 126.5 million (mid-2018). Japan’s land area is 145,936 square miles. 126.5 ÷ 0.145 = 867 persons per square mile. Japan’s arithmetic density. 11.7 percent of Japan’s land, or 17,074.51 square miles, is arable. 126.5 ÷ 0.017 = 7409 persons per square mile. Japan’s physiological density. Physiological density is a good indicator of the pressure that a country’s population exerts on its agricultural land. Agricultural density: The number of farmers per unit of arable land. India had 272.82 million agricultural workers (mid-2015). India has 616,605 square miles of arable land. 272.8 ÷ 0.616 = 442 farmers per square mile. India’s agricultural density. India has traditionally been a country of small farmers, relying mostly on muscle power and simple tools. The higher the agricultural density, the more labor intensive a country’s agriculture is. Agricultural density: The number of farmers per unit of arable land. India’s agricultural density. 272.8 ÷ 0.616 = 442 farmers per square mile. The U.S. had 3.18 million farmers (mid-2012). The U.S. has 587,889 square miles of arable land. 3.18 ÷ 0.588 = ~5 farmers per square mile. U.S. agricultural density. The highly mechanized nature of agriculture in developed countries such as the United States means a typical farmer can farm hundreds of acres of land. Economic development  The government uses population distribution to plan public projects, such as roads, schools, parks, and firehouses. Using the same information, private developers decide where to build new housing, restaurants, shopping centers, and grocery stores. It’s more cost effective to build communication networks, roads, railroads, bridges, and airports in densely populated areas than in sparsely populated areas. Providing essential services such as schools, hospitals, and public utilities to a large number of people in one place reduces the cost per person. 30 Political impact After the U.S. census is conducted every 10 years, the 435 seats in the U.S. House of Representatives are reapportioned among the 50 states based on population change. The population of the Sunbelt states in the South and Southwest has been growing faster than the population of the Northeast and Midwest Snow Belt states The former have gained seats at the expense of the latter, thus shifting some political power to the South and Southwest. Environmental impact Carrying capacity: The number of people a particular environment or Earth as a whole can support on a sustainable basis. Heavily populated areas, especially large metropolitan areas, usually have poor air quality compared to rural areas. Urban expansion often leads to loss of habitats for wildlife, farmland for food production, and green spaces that many people value. Human well-being: The state of being comfortable, healthy, or happy. Population density has risen considerably worldwide, but it has been accompanied by rising standards of living and better quality of life. High population density often means a high amount of human capital, human interaction, and human creativity. Cities have therefore been called “the best invention in human history.” Disease and natural disasters Infectious diseases, such as malaria - spread through mosquito bites - may spread faster in densely populated areas.  More people in African countries now live in crowded cities and towns. In the past, many people lived in rural villages dispersed over a large area, which made the spread of the disease more difficult. The increasingly dense population distribution is contributing to the severity of losses from natural disasters because more people now live in hurricane- and earthquake-prone areas, such as coastal areas. Module 8 Population composition: The makeup of the population by age and sex as well as by ethnic, racial, income, and educational background. Age structure: Refers to the breakdown of a population into different age groups or cohorts. Dependency ratio: The number of dependents in a population, that each 100 working-age people (ages 15 to 64 years) must support. Youth dependency ratio: The number of young dependents in a population (usually people younger than 15 years of age) that every 100 working-age people must support. Elderly dependency ratio: The number of elderly dependents in a population (usually people older than 64 years of age) that every 100 working-age people must support. Generations: Groups of people who were born around the same time and share some common traits due to the cultural and societal influences they shared as they grew up. GI Generation: Americans born before 1924, who lived through the Great Depression and World War II. Silent Generation: born between 1924 and 1945 and is relatively small because people had fewer children in difficult times. Baby Boomers: People born from 1946 to 1964 during the post–World War II uptick in birth rate. Generation X: People born between 1965 and 1980 and are now in their prime working years. Generation Y: People who were born between 1981 and 2000; often referred to as millennials. Generation Z: People born after the turn of the twenty-first century. Sex ratio: The ratio of the number of men to number of women in a population. Androcentrism: A phenomenon in which a culture demonstrates a marked preference for males. Infanticide: The practice of killing infants. Population pyramid: A very useful graphic device for comparing age and sex structure. Module 9 Demographic equation: The method for calculating total population of a country or place based on natural increase and migration over a period of time (usually a year). Crude birth rate (CBR): The average number of births per 1000 people; the traditional way of measuring birth rates. Low birth rate: A crude birth rate between 10 and 20 births per 1000 people. ( IMMIGRANTS) Transitional birth rate: A crude birth rate between 20 and 30 per 1000 people. High birth rate: A crude birth rate of more than 30 per 1000 people. Total fertility rate (TFR): The average number of children born per woman during her reproductive lifetime, considered to be from 15 to 49 years of age. Replacement level fertility: The average number of children needed to replace both parents and stabilize population over time. Factors affecting fertility rates Economic development Religious and cultural influences Education Gender roles: Culturally specific notions of what it means to be a man or woman. Population policies Crude death rate (CDR) or mortality rate: The number of deaths per year per 1000 people. Infant mortality rate (IMR): A measure of how many infants die within the first year of their life per 1000 live births. Child mortality: Deaths of children under five years of age. Rate of natural increase (RNI): The difference between the number of births and deaths in a given year, when expressed as a percentage of total population. Zero population growth (ZPG): When a country has the same number of births and deaths in a given year, its RNI is zero. Doubling time: The number of years it takes for a population to double in size. - 70 divided by the Rate of Natural Increase Rule of 70: A tool for calculating the doubling time of a population by dividing 70 by a country’s rate of natural increase (RNI). Doubling time equation - 70/(CDR-CBR) Module 10 Demographic transition model (DTM): Conceptualizes how crude birth rate (CBR) and crude death rate (CDR) as well as the resulting rate of natural increase (RNI) change over time as countries go through industrialization and urbanization. Stage 1- High stationary stage Stage 2-Early expanding stage - Becoming more developed - Uganda , sudan, yemin Stage 3- Late expanding stage - Mexico, india, comolumbia Stage 4- Low stationary stage - US, Canada, UK, - Most developed countries Stage 5-Natural decrease stage - Japan, south korea Critiquing the demographic transition model Faster-than-historic growth rates (e.g., Chad, Nigeria, Sierra Leone) Nonlinear progression (e.g., war can increase death rates) Accelerated transition (e.g., China) Epidemiology: A branch of medicine that studies the distribution, determinants, and control of diseases and other health conditions, such as tobacco use and sedentary lifestyle. Epidemiological transition theory: Seeks to explain how changes in health services and living standards affect patterns of disease. Degenerative disease: A disease that causes deterioration over time, such as cancer, heart disease, and stroke. Module 11 Malthusian: A term derived from the name Thomas Robert Malthus, an English economist and cleric, to mean either “of or relating to Malthus’s theory” or “a follower of Malthus.” ‘Malthus’ dismal equation Resources (food) grows arithmetically (or linearly) Population grows exponentially (or geometrically) Overpopulation: Occurs when the human population exceeds the food supply. Neo-Malthusians: People who today subscribe to the Malthusian view of population (e.g., Paul Ehrlich).  Cornucopians or anti-Malthusians: People who disagree with the Malthusian view of population and resources. Boserup effect: Increase in food production resulting from the use of new farming methods. This specific theory suggests that the more people there are, the more hands there are to work, rather than more mouths to feed. What is it Ester Boserup Challenges of feeding large populations motivate people to 1) invent new technologies, and 2) adopt more productive farming methods. Julian Simon People are the “ultimate resource” More people = more brainpower = more solutions Module 12 Antinatalist policies: Designed to curtail population growth by reducing fertility rates. China’s Birth Control Policy Rapid growth in 1950s and 1960s Initial campaigns encouraged delayed marriage and childbirth One couple, one child policy (1980) Incentives: free contraceptives, prenatal care, paid maternity leave, and monetary rewards Penalties: fines, demotions (for government positions) China’s TFR dropped from 5.44 (1971) to 1.8 (current) Unintended Consequences of the One Couple, One Child Policy Drastically changed family structure Unbalanced sex ratios (around 115 boys for every 100 girls born) An aging population One-child policy adjusted to two-child policy (2016) Examples of other antinatalist policies Egypt: “Two is Enough” (2018) Persuasion (media campaign, provide maternal and child health care, cash support) India: forced sterilization (1975-1977) Coercion: millions of men harassed or forced to have vasectomies (ended under mass protest) Pronatalist policies: Designed to boost fertility rates and ultimately population growth. Challenges of a shrinking population About half of the world’s countries have a fertility rate below replacement level May result in socioeconomic problems (e.g., labor shortages, reduced innovation, high dependency ratios, rising cost of retirement and medical expenditures, and a potential threat to national power and security) Examples of pronatalist policies Russia: national (increased child-care benefits, length of maternity leave); region (“Day of Conception” [Ulyanovsk region]) Denmark: “Do it for Denmark” campaign (2014) Spain: new ministerial position in government to encourage more children (2017) Module 13 Women’s status: The degree of equality between men and women with respect to access to and control over both physical and social resources in the family, community, or society at large. Women’s empowerment: The increased autonomy of women to make choices and shape their lives. Women’s education level is consistently associated with fertility reduction. Women’s participation in economic activities: effects on fertility In developing countries: o Participation in economic activities may encourage women to delay marriages, reduce family size, and increase family planning, reducing fertility o In rural areas, children are viewed as assets, and most women tend to work around their home or in the village, thus not preventing them from child-rearing - and may not lower fertility o Many women work in low-skilled, low-paying factory jobs (continued subordination or an opportunity to build better lives?) Women’s status: effects on mortality Better-educated mothers are more likely to understand the importance of good nutrition and hygiene, seek medical treatment for themselves and their children, and practice family planning, thus lowering levels of maternal mortality. o About 290,000 women die each year from pregnancy-related causes (99 percent of deaths in developing countries) Women’s status: effects on migration In countries where women enjoy more autonomy, they are moving by themselves or with their husbands in search of better opportunities (e.g., Chinese women moving to booming cities for jobs). Migration may confer other benefits (e.g., education and training opportunities, remittances, more confidence) Antinatalist policies: Designed to curtail population growth by reducing fertility rates. China’s Birth Control Policy Rapid growth in 1950s and 1960s Initial campaigns encouraged delayed marriage and childbirth One couple, one child policy (1980) o Incentives: free contraceptives, prenatal care, paid maternity leave, and monetary rewards o Penalties: fines, demotions (for government positions) China’s TFR dropped from 5.44 (1971) to 1.8 (current) Unintended Consequences of the One Couple, One Child Policy Drastically changed family structure Unbalanced sex ratios (around 115 boys for every 100 girls born) An aging population  One-child policy adjusted to two-child policy (2016) Examples of other antinatalist policies Egypt: “Two is Enough” (2018) o Persuasion (media campaign, provide maternal and child health care, cash support) India: forced sterilization (1975-1977) o Coercion: millions of men harassed or forced to have vasectomies (ended under mass protest) Pronatalist policies: Designed to boost fertility rates and ultimately population growth. Challenges of a shrinking population About half of the world’s countries have a fertility rate below replacement level May result in socioeconomic problems (e.g., labor shortages, reduced innovation, high dependency ratios, rising cost of retirement and medical expenditures, and a potential threat to national power and security) Examples of pronatalist policies Russia: national (increased child-care benefits, length of maternity leave); region (“Day of Conception” [Ulyanovsk region]) Denmark: “Do it for Denmark” campaign (2014) Spain: new ministerial position in government to encourage more children (2017) Module 14 Aging population: A population of a country or place that ages as the number or proportion of its elderly people increases. Median age: The age that divides a population into two halves so that one half is younger than this age and the other half older. Within countries, the degree to which the population is graying and the distribution of older populations differ geographically. Scale of analysis is vital Rural populations in the U.S. and other countries are usually older than those in urban areas o Farmers, ranchers, and other agricultural managers have the oldest average age (almost 60 years) of any profession in the U.S. The average age of farmers in Japan is 67 Low fertility rates Fertility rates have been declining worldwide (particularly in developed countries and in some developing countries) o Many women work outside the home and focus on their careers, postponing motherhood until later o The lack of paid maternity leave in the U.S. (and Papua New Guinea) makes having children even more challenging  o Raising children is expensive o A child-free life is becoming more socially acceptable for women Life expectancy: The number of years a person can expect to live from birth. Age-selective migration The out-migration of young people from eastern European countries has accelerated the graying of those countries Some Sunbelt locations in the U.S., such as parts of Arizona and Florida, have become retirement havens for the elderly, resulting in age-selective in-migration In Great Britain, coastal districts have a much higher proportion of elderly than the interior (suggests the aged often migrate to seaside locations when they retire) Labor force shortage A country with an aging population is likely to encounter labor shortage. o Japan’s workforce shrank by 13 percent from 2000 to 2018 o China, with its population of 1.4 billion people, is also facing a labor shortage An aging population may reduce a country’s economic growth, vitality, and ability to innovate, making it less competitive in the long run Rising elderly dependency ratio An aging population means there will be fewer young taxpayers available to help support a growing older population In the U.S. there may not be enough people in the workforce paying into entitlements to ensure these programs remain solvent (similar issues in many other countries) Changing economy A shrinking workforce may lead to slower economic growth and a smaller economy (fewer people making money and paying taxes) Elderly people demand different goods and services (less likely to purchase homes and other big-ticket items, but more likely than younger people to need health care, reading glasses, medication, etc.) Population decline If a country’s total fertility rate stays below the replacement level, its population will eventually decline due to more deaths than births (unless immigration offsets the population loss) Japan, Germany, and many eastern European countries already have a shrinking population (In 2018, Japan’s total population decreased by 448,000 people, its largest ever) Boosting fertility Many countries are using incentive programs in an attempt to boost fertility Pronatalist policies (e.g., cash payments to parents) Coping with labor shortage Some businesses use robots for many routine tasks Many elderly people are staying in the workforce, sometimes well into their 70s and 80s Japan is allowing more foreign workers to live and work in the country for longer periods of time (even allowing some a path toward Japanese citizenship) Adapting to an aging society Improve social safety nets to ensure senior citizens receive care and live fulfilling lives  Train medical personnel to meet the needs of increasingly elderly population Redesign urban infrastructure to make it more accessible to the elderly (e.g., more time to cross streets at crosswalks) Address the loneliness epidemic among homebound seniors (e.g., Italian families fostering elderly people) Spatial mobility: All forms of geographical movement, including people’s everyday commuting and travels. Social (upward) mobility: Mobility that implies a change in social hierarchy. Migrant or mover: A person who migrates or moves. Non-migrants or stayers: People who do not move. Origin: A person’s location before migration. Destination: The place where the migrant is going. Emigration or out-migration: The act of a migrant leaving their place (country) of origin. Emigrants or out-migrants: People who leave their country of origin. Immigration or in-migration: The act of a migrant arriving at their destination country. Immigrants or in-migrants: People who arrive at their destination country. Migration stream: The flow of all migrants from an origin to a destination. Net migration rate (NMR): A gauge of the impact of migration on population change, determined by dividing a country’s net migration by its total population, then multiplying by 1000. Counterstream: The flow of all migrants in the direction opposite a particular migration stream, from its destination back to the origin. Net migration: The difference between the number of in-migrants and out-migrants. Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration 1. Migration and distance. Most migrants move only a short distance. 2. Migration by stages. Migration proceeds geographically in a step-by-step fashion. 3. Long-distance migration. Long-distance migrants generally move to one of the great centers of commerce and industry. 4. Stream and counterstream. Each main stream of migration produces a compensating counterstream. 5. Urban–rural difference. Urban dwellers are less migratory than rural people. 6. Gender difference. Women are more migratory than men within the country of their birth, but men more frequently venture beyond their country of birth. 7. Migrant characteristics. Most migrants are adults, and families seldom move out of their country of birth. 8. Migration and urban growth. Large towns grow more by migration than by natural increase. 9. Migration volume over time. The volume of migration increases as industries and commerce develop and as transportation improves. 10. Migration direction. The major direction of migration is from agricultural areas to centers of industry and commerce. 11. Migration motive. Economic factors are the major cause of migration. Migration age profile: The relatively stable relationship between the odds of migration and age across different countries. Brain drain: A phenomenon where a country or a place loses young, more educated, and skilled people through migration. Brain gain: A phenomenon where a country or a place gains young, more educated, and skilled people through migration. Push-pull theory of migration: Theory asserting that two contrasting sets of factors are at work in migration decisions. Push factors: Factors that cause people to be dissatisfied with their present locales and want to move somewhere else. Pull factors: The attributes of other places that make them appealing to potential migrants. Intervening obstacles: The complications that potential migrants will need to overcome to reach their destination. Social networks: People’s friends and relatives. Intervening opportunity: A nearby attractive locale where migrants may decide to settle instead of going to the intended destination farther away. Module 15 Spatial mobility: All forms of geographical movement, including people’s everyday commuting and travels. Social (upward) mobility: Mobility that implies a change in social hierarchy. Migrant or mover: A person who migrates or moves. Non-migrants or stayers: People who do not move. Origin: A person’s location before migration. Destination: The place where the migrant is going. Emigration or out-migration: The act of a migrant leaving their place (country) of origin. Emigrants or out-migrants: People who leave their country of origin. Immigration or in-migration: The act of a migrant arriving at their destination country. Immigrants or in-migrants: People who arrive at their destination country. Migration stream: The flow of all migrants from an origin to a destination. Net migration rate (NMR): A gauge of the impact of migration on population change, determined by dividing a country’s net migration by its total population, then multiplying by 1000. Counterstream: The flow of all migrants in the direction opposite a particular migration stream, from its destination back to the origin. Net migration: The difference between the number of in-migrants and out-migrants. Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration 1. Migration and distance. Most migrants move only a short distance. 2. Migration by stages. Migration proceeds geographically in a step-by-step fashion. 3. Long-distance migration. Long-distance migrants generally move to one of the great centers of commerce and industry. 4. Stream and counterstream. Each main stream of migration produces a compensating counterstream. 5. Urban–rural difference. Urban dwellers are less migratory than rural people. Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration 6. Gender difference. Women are more migratory than men within the country of their birth, but men more frequently venture beyond their country of birth. 7. Migrant characteristics. Most migrants are adults, and families seldom move out of their country of birth. 8. Migration and urban growth. Large towns grow more by migration than by natural increase. Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration 9. Migration volume over time. The volume of migration increases as industries and commerce develop and as transportation improves. 10. Migration direction. The major direction of migration is from agricultural areas to centers of industry and commerce. 11. Migration motive. Economic factors are the major cause of migration. Migration age profile: The relatively stable relationship between the odds of migration and age across different countries. Brain drain: A phenomenon where a country or a place loses young, more educated, and skilled people through migration. Brain gain: A phenomenon where a country or a place gains young, more educated, and skilled people through migration. Push-pull theory of migration: Theory asserting that two contrasting sets of factors are at work in migration decisions. Push factors: Factors that cause people to be dissatisfied with their present locales and want to move somewhere else. Pull factors: The attributes of other places that make them appealing to potential migrants. Intervening obstacles: The complications that potential migrants will need to overcome to reach their destination. Social networks: People’s friends and relatives. Intervening opportunity: A nearby attractive locale where migrants may decide to settle instead of going to the intended destination farther away. Module 16 Voluntary migration: Migration that is done willingly. International migration: When moves are made across national borders. Guest worker: A person with temporary permission to Transnational migration: When migrants move back and forth between their home countries and those to which they have migrated.work in another country. Internal migration or interregional migration: When people move within the borders of a country. Great Migration: The twentieth-century movement of 6 million African Americans from the rural southern states to the cities of the midwestern and northeastern states. Rural-to-urban migration: When people move from the countryside to cities. Residential mobility: Moves that occur within a metropolitan area. Step (or stepwise) migration: Migration carried out in a series of stages, usually from nearby to bigger and more distant places. Chain migration: The process by which some people’s migration to a new place leads their family members, friends, and others to move to the same place. Return migration: Migrants going back, or returning, to their previous place of residence or origin. Step (or stepwise) migration: Migration carried out in a series of stages, usually from nearby to bigger and more distant places. Chain migration: The process by which some people’s migration to a new place leads their family members, friends, and others to move to the same place. Return migration: Migrants going back, or returning, to their previous place of residence or origin. Black Belt: Ethnic homeland in the U.S. South. Seasonal migration: Migration based on the time of year. Transhumance: A phenomenon where herders and their livestock move seasonally between their summer and winter pastures. 5. Circulation: Short-term and cyclical movement that occurs repeatedly on a regular basis. Forced migration: Migration caused by forces out of one’s control, such as disasters, social conflicts, or developmental projects. Refugees: People who leave their country because of persecution based on race, ethnicity, religion, nationality, or political opinion. Internally displaced person (IDP): Someone who remains within his or her country’s borders despite being persecuted by their home country. Ethnic cleansing: The forced removal of one ethnic group by another ethnic group to create an ethnically consistent territory. Care for refugees: Organizations such as the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) are tasked to safeguard the rights and well-being of refugees. Refugee camps are meant to be temporary settlements to house and care for displaced persons until they can be … Repatriated: When refugees or displaced persons return to their home country. Module 17 Diaspora: Involuntary mass dispersions of a population from its home territory.